2.3 The emergence of nation-states in the Middle East

The collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I reshaped the Middle East. European powers carved up the region, creating new nation-states with artificial borders. This process ignored existing ethnic and religious divisions, setting the stage for future conflicts.

Nationalist movements emerged to shape the identities of these new states. Leaders promoted ideologies like Arab nationalism, pan-Arabism, and Kemalism. These movements had a lasting impact on the political landscape of the Middle East, influencing both domestic and foreign policies.

The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the Rise of Nation-States

Nation-state formation after Ottoman collapse

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• Ottoman Empire's decline and collapse following World War I due to
  • Internal factors including economic stagnation, political instability, and growing nationalist movements within empire
  • External factors such as increasing European imperialism and devastating impact of World War I on empire
• Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) secretly reached between Britain and France to partition Middle East into spheres of influence
  • Created artificial borders dividing region without regard for ethnic, religious, or tribal affiliations
• Treaty of Sèvres (1920) imposed harsh terms on defeated Ottoman Empire but was rejected by Turkish nationalists
  • Treaty of Lausanne (1923) recognized independence of Turkey and redrew borders of Middle East
• Emergence of new nation-states in Middle East including Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, and various states of Arabian Peninsula
  • European mandates (British and French) played significant role in shaping borders and political systems of these new states

Nationalist movements in state identities

• Arab nationalism emerged as powerful force with Arab Revolt (1916-1918) against Ottoman rule
  • Revolt led by Sharif Hussein of Mecca with support of British officer T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia)
• Influential intellectual and political leaders shaped nationalist ideologies and identities of new states
  • Sati' al-Husri promoted idea of unified Arab nation with shared language, history, and culture
  • Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar founded Ba'ath Party emphasizing Arab unity and socialism
  • Reza Shah Pahlavi pursued modernization and centralization of Iran while promoting Iranian nationalism
• Nationalist ideologies had significant impact on formation of political identities in region
  • Pan-Arabism advocated for unity of Arab world and played key role in shaping policies of states like Egypt, Syria, and Iraq
  • Kemalism in Turkey emphasized secularism, nationalism, and modernization as foundations of new Turkish republic
  • Zionism, Jewish nationalist movement, led to establishment of State of Israel and ongoing Arab-Israeli conflict

Paths to Independence and Challenges Faced by New States

Paths to independence in Middle East

• Egypt gained independence gradually from British influence
  1. 1919 Revolution led to establishment of constitutional monarchy with limited British oversight
  2. Free Officers Movement, led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, overthrew monarchy in 1952 Egyptian Revolution and established republic
• Iraq transitioned from British mandate to independence
  1. British Mandate of Mesopotamia (1920-1932) established Hashemite monarchy in Iraq
  2. Hashemite monarchy overthrown in 1958 military coup leading to establishment of republic
• Syria and Lebanon gained independence from French mandate
  1. French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon (1923-1946) divided region into separate states
  2. Independence movements in both countries led to establishment of republics free from French control
• Creation of State of Israel and ensuing Arab-Israeli conflict
  1. Balfour Declaration (1917) expressed British support for establishment of Jewish homeland in Palestine
  2. UN Partition Plan (1947) divided Palestine into Jewish and Arab states leading to 1948 Arab-Israeli War and establishment of Israel

Challenges of newly independent states

• Legacy of colonial borders and nation-building
  • Artificial borders divided ethnic, religious, and tribal groups leading to conflicts and instability (Kurds, Sunni-Shia divide)
  • Forging common national identity among diverse populations proved difficult and often led to marginalization of minority groups
• Political instability and rise of authoritarianism
  • Military coups common in many states (Iraq, Syria, Egypt) leading to dominance of military in political systems
  • Authoritarian regimes suppressed opposition and lacked democratic institutions leading to human rights abuses and popular unrest
• Economic challenges and development struggles
  • Dependence on oil exports left many states vulnerable to price fluctuations and hindered economic diversification (Gulf states, Iran, Iraq)
  • Unequal distribution of wealth and persistent poverty fueled social and political tensions in many states (Egypt, Syria, Yemen)
• Impact of external influences and regional conflicts
  • Cold War led many states to align with either United States or Soviet Union impacting internal politics and foreign policies (Egypt, Iraq, Syria)
  • Arab-Israeli conflict remained major source of regional instability and hindered cooperation and development in region (Lebanon civil war, Palestinian question)