3.4 Military coups and the establishment of authoritarian regimes

Military coups and authoritarian regimes shaped Middle Eastern politics after colonialism. Weak institutions, socio-economic challenges, and ideological factors fueled instability. The military, seen as capable, seized power to address crises, often becoming entrenched.

Authoritarian rule led to restricted political participation, curtailed civil liberties, and human rights abuses. Opposition movements faced repression, limited organizational capacity, and fragmentation. International support for regimes prioritized stability over democratic reforms, complicating change efforts.

Factors Contributing to Military Coups and Authoritarian Regimes

Factors of Middle Eastern coups

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• Political instability following the end of colonialism created power vacuums left by departing colonial powers (Britain, France) and weak political institutions lacking democratic traditions
• Socio-economic challenges including high levels of poverty, income inequality, rapid population growth, urbanization, and limited economic opportunities fueled discontent
• Ideological factors such as the rise of Arab nationalism, anti-imperialism, and the influence of socialist and leftist ideologies (Nasserism, Ba'athism) contributed to the perceived failures of civilian governments to address national issues
• Military often seen as the most organized and capable institution, with officers having modern education and exposure to Western ideas, and playing a role in national liberation struggles (Algerian War of Independence) and post-independence politics

Military coups vs authoritarian regimes

• Military coups served as a means for officers to seize power, justified as necessary to address political and economic crises, and often presented as temporary measures to restore stability
• Military leaders consolidated power by suspending or abolishing constitutions and parliaments, banning political parties, suppressing opposition, and establishing single-party systems (Egypt under Nasser) or personalistic rule (Libya under Gaddafi)
• Militarization of politics and society occurred through:
  1. Military officers occupying key government positions
  2. Expansion of the military's role in the economy and social affairs
  3. Use of military courts and security apparatus to control the population

Consequences of Authoritarian Rule and Challenges to Democracy

Impact of authoritarianism in Middle East

• Restrictions on political participation through limitations on free and fair elections, suppression of opposition parties and movements (Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt), and centralization of power in the hands of the ruling elite
• Curtailment of civil liberties, including restrictions on freedom of speech, press, and assembly, censorship and control of media outlets, and surveillance and monitoring of citizens' activities
• Human rights abuses such as arbitrary arrests and detentions, torture and mistreatment of prisoners (Tadmur Prison in Syria), extrajudicial killings, and forced disappearances

Challenges for opposition movements

• Repression and intimidation by security forces through arrests and imprisonment of activists and dissidents, use of violence and torture to suppress opposition, and creation of a climate of fear and self-censorship
• Limitations on organizational capacity due to restrictions on the formation and operation of civil society organizations, difficulties in mobilizing and coordinating opposition activities, and limited access to resources and international support
• Fragmentation and co-optation of opposition through:
  1. Divide and rule tactics employed by the regime
  2. Co-optation of opposition figures through patronage and incentives
  3. Exploitation of ethnic, religious, and ideological divisions within the opposition
• International support for authoritarian regimes, with foreign powers prioritizing stability and security concerns, providing economic and military assistance to authoritarian governments (US support for Saudi Arabia), and exerting limited pressure for democratic reforms