🐪Contemporary Middle East Politics Unit 4 – Political Islam: Religion in Governance

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Political Islam refers to the belief that Islam should guide social, political, and legal systems of government
• Islamism is a term often used interchangeably with political Islam, emphasizing the political aspects of the Islamic faith
• Sharia, or Islamic law, is derived from the Quran and the Sunnah (teachings and practices of Prophet Muhammad) and forms the basis for governance in many Islamic states
  • Sharia covers a wide range of topics, including crime, politics, economics, and personal matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance
• Caliphate is a form of Islamic government led by a caliph, who is considered a successor to Prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim community (ummah)
• Jihad, often misunderstood as solely referring to holy war, encompasses the struggle to live according to Islamic principles and can be both internal (spiritual) and external (physical)
• Secularism, the separation of religion and state, is often seen as incompatible with political Islam, which advocates for the integration of religious principles into governance
• Theocracy is a form of government in which a deity or religious institution is recognized as the supreme authority, and divine guidance is used to govern the country

Historical Context

• The rise of political Islam can be traced back to the early 20th century, as Muslim-majority countries sought to assert their identity and resist Western colonialism
• The abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924 by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk led to a crisis of legitimacy and identity in the Muslim world, sparking debates about the role of Islam in modern nation-states
• The Muslim Brotherhood, founded in Egypt in 1928 by Hassan al-Banna, became one of the most influential Islamic revivalist movements, advocating for the establishment of an Islamic state governed by Sharia law
  • The Muslim Brotherhood's ideology spread to other countries, inspiring similar movements and political parties across the Middle East and North Africa
• The Iranian Revolution of 1979, led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, resulted in the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran, a theocratic state based on the principle of velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the Islamic jurist)
• The Soviet-Afghan War (1979-1989) and the rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan further fueled the growth of political Islam, as Islamist fighters from around the world joined the conflict against the Soviet Union
• The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and the subsequent "War on Terror" led to increased scrutiny and criticism of political Islam, with some Western commentators equating Islamism with extremism and violence

Ideological Foundations

• Political Islam draws its ideological foundations from the Quran, the Sunnah, and the works of influential Islamic scholars and thinkers
• Sayyid Qutb, an Egyptian Islamic theorist and leading member of the Muslim Brotherhood, is considered one of the most influential ideologues of modern political Islam
  • Qutb's book, "Milestones," advocated for the establishment of an Islamic state and the rejection of Western values, which he viewed as corrupt and oppressive
• Abul A'la Maududi, a Pakistani Islamic scholar and founder of the Jamaat-e-Islami party, argued that Islam is a comprehensive way of life and that the state should be an instrument for implementing Islamic principles
• The concept of tawhid (the oneness of God) is central to political Islam, emphasizing the sovereignty of God over all aspects of life, including politics and governance
• The principle of hakimiyyah (God's sovereignty) asserts that the right to legislate belongs exclusively to God, and that human beings must submit to divine law (Sharia)
• Political Islam rejects the notion of the nation-state as a Western construct, instead advocating for the unity of the Muslim community (ummah) under a single Islamic state or caliphate
• The concept of jihad, both in its spiritual and physical dimensions, is seen as a means of establishing and defending an Islamic order, as well as resisting oppression and injustice

Political Islam in Practice

• Political Islam has manifested in various forms across the Muslim world, from grassroots movements to political parties and governments
• In some countries, such as Saudi Arabia and Iran, political Islam is enshrined in the constitution and forms the basis for the legal and political system
  • Saudi Arabia applies a strict interpretation of Sharia law, known as Wahhabism, which has been criticized for its human rights record and treatment of women and minorities
• In other countries, such as Turkey and Indonesia, Islamist parties have participated in democratic processes and have sought to balance religious principles with secular governance
  • The Justice and Development Party (AKP) in Turkey, led by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, has pursued a policy of "conservative democracy," combining Islamic values with economic liberalization and a pro-Western foreign policy
• Islamist movements have also played a significant role in opposition politics, challenging authoritarian regimes and calling for political reform and greater religious freedom
  • The Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, despite being outlawed and persecuted by successive governments, has remained a significant force in Egyptian politics, winning elections and shaping public discourse
• In some cases, political Islam has been associated with armed struggle and terrorism, such as the activities of groups like Hamas in Palestine and Hezbollah in Lebanon
  • These groups have combined Islamist ideology with nationalist and anti-imperialist rhetoric, engaging in both political and military activities to further their goals

Case Studies and Examples

• The Islamic Republic of Iran serves as a prominent example of political Islam in practice, with a theocratic system of government based on the principle of velayat-e faqih
  • Iran's constitution combines elements of republican democracy with Islamic law, with the Supreme Leader (a religious scholar) holding ultimate authority over the state
• The rise and fall of the Islamic State (ISIS) in Iraq and Syria demonstrate the extreme manifestation of political Islam, as the group sought to establish a transnational caliphate through violence and terror
  • ISIS's strict interpretation of Sharia law and its brutal tactics, including public executions, slavery, and genocide, drew international condemnation and military intervention
• The Taliban's rule in Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001 provides another example of political Islam in practice, as the group imposed a harsh version of Sharia law and severely restricted women's rights and freedoms
  • The Taliban's return to power in 2021, following the withdrawal of U.S. forces, has raised concerns about the future of human rights and political stability in the country
• The Ennahda Party in Tunisia represents a more moderate approach to political Islam, participating in democratic processes and advocating for a balance between Islamic principles and civil liberties
  • Following the Tunisian Revolution of 2011, Ennahda emerged as a major political force, winning elections and forming coalition governments with secular parties
• The Gülen movement in Turkey, led by exiled Islamic scholar Fethullah Gülen, has been accused of infiltrating state institutions and attempting to overthrow the government
  • The Turkish government's crackdown on the Gülen movement, following a failed coup attempt in 2016, has raised questions about the role of Islamic organizations in Turkish politics and society

Challenges and Controversies

• Political Islam has faced numerous challenges and controversies, both within Muslim-majority countries and in the broader international context
• The compatibility of Islam with democracy and human rights has been a subject of intense debate, with critics arguing that Islamic law is inherently incompatible with liberal democratic values
  • Some Islamist movements have been accused of using democratic processes to gain power, only to then undermine democratic institutions and civil liberties once in office
• The treatment of women and minorities under Islamic law has been a major point of contention, with concerns raised about issues such as gender segregation, forced veiling, and discrimination against non-Muslims
  • In some cases, the application of Sharia law has led to human rights abuses, such as the use of corporal and capital punishment for crimes like adultery and apostasy
• The rise of Islamic extremism and terrorism has cast a shadow over political Islam, with some Western commentators and policymakers equating Islamism with violence and radicalization
  • The actions of groups like Al-Qaeda and ISIS have fueled Islamophobia and anti-Muslim sentiment, leading to discrimination and marginalization of Muslim communities in many parts of the world
• The role of religion in public life and the relationship between mosque and state remains a contentious issue in many Muslim-majority countries, with ongoing debates about the proper balance between religious and secular authority
  • In some cases, the politicization of Islam has led to sectarian tensions and conflicts, such as the Sunni-Shia divide in countries like Iraq and Bahrain
• The influence of external actors, such as Western powers and regional rivals, has further complicated the dynamics of political Islam, with accusations of foreign interference and manipulation of Islamist movements for geopolitical gain
  • The U.S.-led "War on Terror" and the support for authoritarian regimes in the name of stability have been criticized for exacerbating the challenges facing political Islam and fueling anti-Western sentiment

Global Impact and Influence

• Political Islam has had a significant impact on global politics and international relations, shaping the discourse and policies of both Muslim-majority countries and Western powers
• The Iranian Revolution of 1979 and the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran marked a turning point in the history of political Islam, inspiring similar movements and challenging the regional balance of power
  • Iran's support for Shia militant groups like Hezbollah in Lebanon and its rivalry with Sunni-dominated states like Saudi Arabia have contributed to sectarian tensions and proxy conflicts across the Middle East
• The rise of Islamist parties and movements in the wake of the Arab Spring uprisings of 2011 has reshaped the political landscape of the Middle East and North Africa, with varying degrees of success and stability
  • While Tunisia's Ennahda Party has managed to navigate the challenges of democratic transition, the Muslim Brotherhood's brief stint in power in Egypt was cut short by a military coup in 2013
• The emergence of ISIS and its declaration of a caliphate in 2014 sent shockwaves through the international community, drawing a global coalition to combat the group's territorial expansion and terrorist attacks
  • The defeat of ISIS in Iraq and Syria has not eliminated the threat of Islamic extremism, as the group's ideology and tactics continue to inspire lone-wolf attacks and affiliate groups around the world
• The refugee crisis resulting from conflicts in Syria, Iraq, and Afghanistan has had a profound impact on Europe and beyond, with the influx of Muslim refugees and migrants fueling anti-immigrant sentiment and far-right populism
  • The integration of Muslim communities in Western societies remains a challenge, with debates over issues such as the wearing of religious symbols, the construction of mosques, and the prevention of radicalization
• The Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the question of Palestinian statehood have become intertwined with the broader struggle for Islamic self-determination and resistance to Western imperialism
  • Islamist groups like Hamas and Islamic Jihad have played a significant role in the Palestinian resistance movement, complicating efforts to achieve a peaceful resolution to the conflict

Contemporary Debates and Future Trends

• As political Islam continues to evolve and adapt to changing circumstances, several key debates and trends are likely to shape its future trajectory
• The role of Islam in the public sphere and the relationship between religion and state remains a central issue, with ongoing debates about the compatibility of Islamic law with democratic governance and human rights
  • Some scholars and activists advocate for a reformist approach, seeking to reinterpret Islamic texts and traditions in light of modern realities and values
• The rise of Islamic feminism and the growing voice of Muslim women in political and social movements represent a significant trend, challenging traditional gender roles and patriarchal structures within Islamic societies
  • Muslim women are increasingly asserting their rights and agency, both within Islamist movements and in broader civil society, leading to a more diverse and inclusive discourse on political Islam
• The impact of globalization and new media technologies on the spread of Islamist ideas and movements is another important factor, with the internet and social media platforms facilitating the exchange of information and the mobilization of supporters
  • At the same time, the proliferation of online extremist content and the use of digital platforms for recruitment and propaganda by terrorist groups pose significant challenges for counter-extremism efforts
• The geopolitical rivalries and shifting alliances in the Middle East and beyond, such as the tensions between Iran and Saudi Arabia and the growing influence of China and Russia, will continue to shape the dynamics of political Islam
  • The future of Islamist movements and parties will depend on their ability to navigate these complex regional and global power structures, as well as their capacity to address the social, economic, and political grievances of their constituents
• The generational divide within Islamist movements, with younger activists and leaders seeking to break away from the old guard and embrace new ideas and strategies, represents another important trend
  • The success of Islamist parties in adapting to changing demographics and political realities will be crucial for their long-term viability and relevance
• Ultimately, the future of political Islam will depend on its ability to balance religious principles with the demands of modern governance, to engage in constructive dialogue with other political and social forces, and to contribute to the development and well-being of Muslim societies in an increasingly interconnected world.