🫶🏽Psychology of Language Unit 7 – Reading and Writing Processes

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Phonological awareness involves the ability to recognize and manipulate the sounds of spoken language (phonemes, syllables, rhymes)
• Orthographic knowledge refers to understanding the rules and patterns of written language, including spelling and punctuation
• Morphological awareness is the understanding of how words are formed and how morphemes (smallest units of meaning) contribute to word meaning
• Lexical access is the process of retrieving word meanings from memory during reading or writing
• Syntax refers to the rules governing the structure and arrangement of words and phrases in a sentence
• Discourse comprehension involves understanding and interpreting connected text beyond the sentence level, including inferencing and integrating information
• Working memory plays a crucial role in holding and manipulating information during reading and writing tasks
• Executive functions, such as attention, planning, and inhibition, are essential for coordinating and regulating reading and writing processes

Cognitive Processes in Reading

• Word recognition is the process of identifying written words and accessing their meanings from memory
  • Involves both phonological decoding (sounding out words) and sight word recognition (recognizing familiar words automatically)
• Sentence processing involves parsing the grammatical structure of sentences and extracting meaning from them
  • Includes understanding syntactic relationships and resolving ambiguities
• Text comprehension requires constructing a coherent mental representation of the text by integrating information across sentences and paragraphs
  • Involves making inferences, monitoring comprehension, and building a situation model
• Metacognitive processes, such as setting reading goals, monitoring understanding, and adjusting strategies, play a role in effective reading
• Eye movements during reading, including fixations and saccades, provide insights into cognitive processes and reading difficulties
• Individual differences in reading skills can be influenced by factors such as vocabulary knowledge, background knowledge, and reading experience
• Reading fluency, the ability to read accurately, quickly, and with appropriate expression, is a key indicator of reading proficiency

Stages of Writing Development

• Emergent writing (ages 2-5) involves scribbling, drawing, and early attempts at letter formation
  • Children begin to understand that writing conveys meaning
• Early writing (ages 5-7) is characterized by the use of invented spelling and simple sentence structures
  • Children start to grasp the relationship between sounds and letters
• Transitional writing (ages 7-9) shows increased use of conventional spelling and more complex sentence structures
  • Children begin to organize their writing into paragraphs and use basic punctuation
• Fluent writing (ages 9-11) demonstrates greater mastery of spelling, grammar, and punctuation
  • Children can write for various purposes and audiences, using different genres and styles
• Advanced writing (ages 11+) is marked by the ability to write well-structured, coherent texts with sophisticated language and ideas
  • Writers can effectively revise and edit their work, considering style, tone, and purpose
• Writing development is influenced by factors such as exposure to print, instruction, and opportunities for practice and feedback

Reading Comprehension Strategies

• Activating prior knowledge before reading helps readers connect new information to existing knowledge and facilitates comprehension
• Predicting involves anticipating what will happen next in a text based on clues and inferences, which engages readers and promotes active reading
• Questioning, both self-generated and teacher-provided, encourages readers to think critically about the text and monitor their understanding
• Visualizing, or creating mental images of the text, can enhance comprehension and retention of information
• Summarizing requires identifying and synthesizing the main ideas of a text, which helps readers consolidate their understanding
• Clarifying involves identifying and resolving confusing or unclear parts of the text, using strategies such as rereading or consulting external sources
• Making connections between the text and personal experiences, other texts, or world knowledge deepens understanding and engagement
• Inferencing is the process of drawing conclusions or filling in gaps in the text based on available information and reasoning

Writing Techniques and Approaches

• Prewriting involves generating and organizing ideas before drafting, using techniques such as brainstorming, outlining, or mind mapping
• Drafting is the process of putting ideas into written form, focusing on content rather than perfection
  • Writers can use strategies such as freewriting or writing in short bursts to overcome writer's block
• Revising involves evaluating and improving the content, organization, and clarity of a draft
  • Writers may add, delete, or rearrange information, and consider feedback from others
• Editing focuses on refining the language, grammar, and mechanics of a piece of writing
  • Includes checking for errors in spelling, punctuation, and sentence structure
• Collaborative writing involves working with others to plan, draft, and revise a piece of writing
  • Can lead to improved ideas, increased motivation, and the development of social and communication skills
• Writing workshops provide a structured approach to writing instruction, with a focus on the writing process, mini-lessons, and peer feedback
• Genre-based writing instruction teaches students the conventions and features of specific text types (narratives, arguments, informational texts)

Language Disorders Affecting Reading and Writing

• Dyslexia is a specific learning disorder characterized by difficulties with accurate and fluent word recognition, decoding, and spelling
  • Often associated with deficits in phonological processing and rapid naming
• Dysgraphia is a writing disorder that affects handwriting, spelling, and the ability to express thoughts in writing
  • May involve difficulties with fine motor skills, orthographic coding, or working memory
• Specific Language Impairment (SLI) is a developmental disorder that affects language acquisition and use, including reading and writing skills
  • Children with SLI may struggle with phonological awareness, vocabulary, grammar, and comprehension
• Aphasia is an acquired language disorder resulting from brain damage, which can affect reading and writing abilities
  • Types include Broca's aphasia (difficulty with language production) and Wernicke's aphasia (difficulty with language comprehension)
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) can impact reading and writing performance due to difficulties with attention, working memory, and executive functions
• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) can affect reading and writing skills, particularly in areas such as comprehension, inferencing, and pragmatic language use

Research Methods and Findings

• Neuroimaging techniques, such as fMRI and EEG, have provided insights into the brain regions and processes involved in reading and writing
  • Studies have identified networks for word recognition, phonological processing, and semantic processing
• Eye-tracking studies have revealed patterns of eye movements during reading, such as longer fixations on difficult or ambiguous words
  • Can be used to study reading strategies, comprehension monitoring, and individual differences in reading skill
• Longitudinal studies have tracked the development of reading and writing skills over time, identifying early predictors and trajectories of achievement
  • Factors such as phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and oral language skills have been found to predict later reading success
• Intervention studies have tested the effectiveness of various instructional approaches and strategies for improving reading and writing outcomes
  • Evidence supports the use of explicit, systematic instruction in phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension strategies
• Cross-linguistic research has examined the universality and variability of reading and writing processes across different languages and writing systems
  • Has implications for understanding the role of language-specific features in literacy development
• Computational models, such as the dual-route cascaded model and the triangle model, have been developed to simulate and explain reading processes
  • Can generate predictions about reading behavior and inform the design of interventions

Practical Applications and Interventions

• Phonics instruction teaches the systematic relationships between letters and sounds, supporting word recognition and decoding skills
  • Can be delivered through explicit, structured programs or embedded in a balanced literacy approach
• Fluency interventions aim to improve the speed, accuracy, and expression of reading, using techniques such as repeated reading and guided oral reading
  • Can include the use of technology, such as computer-assisted instruction or text-to-speech software
• Vocabulary instruction focuses on expanding students' knowledge of word meanings and usage, through direct teaching, exposure to rich language, and word-learning strategies
  • Should target both breadth (number of words known) and depth (understanding of multiple meanings and contexts)
• Comprehension strategy instruction teaches students to use specific strategies, such as predicting, questioning, and summarizing, to actively engage with and understand texts
  • Can be implemented through modeling, guided practice, and independent application
• Writing interventions target specific skills, such as handwriting, spelling, sentence construction, or text organization
  • May involve the use of graphic organizers, sentence frames, or assistive technology
• Accommodations and modifications can be provided to support students with language disorders or learning difficulties in reading and writing tasks
  • Examples include extended time, text-to-speech, speech-to-text, or simplified reading materials
• Response to Intervention (RTI) is a multi-tiered approach to identifying and supporting students with reading and writing difficulties
  • Involves universal screening, targeted interventions, and progress monitoring to ensure appropriate and timely support
• Collaboration among educators, specialists, and families is essential for providing comprehensive and individualized support for students with reading and writing challenges