🗣️Public Relations Ethics Unit 2 – Ethical Theories & Frameworks in PR

Key Ethical Theories

• Deontology focuses on the inherent rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the consequences of those actions
  • Emphasizes the relationship between duty and the morality of human actions
  • Argues that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when analyzing an ethical dilemma
• Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that places the locus of right and wrong solely on the outcomes (consequences) of choosing one action/policy over other actions/policies
  • Argues that the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number
  • Focuses on the consequences of actions, rather than the motives behind them
• Virtue ethics emphasizes the virtues, or moral character, in contrast to other approaches that emphasize duties or rules (deontology) or that emphasize the consequences of actions (utilitarianism)
  • Focuses on the inherent character of a person rather than on the nature or consequences of specific actions performed
  • Argues that moral behavior is a result of developed virtues such as courage, justice, temperance, and prudence
• Ethical egoism is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to act in their own self-interest
  • Holds that an action is morally right if it maximizes one's self-interest
  • Contrasts with ethical altruism, which holds that moral agents have an obligation to help and serve others
• Care ethics emphasizes the importance of relationships, responsibilities, and compassion in moral deliberation
  • Argues that the paradigm of care should be the foundation of ethical reasoning
  • Emphasizes the importance of empathy, compassion, and concern for others in ethical decision-making

Ethical Frameworks in PR

• PRSA Code of Ethics provides a set of guidelines and principles for ethical conduct in public relations
  • Emphasizes the core values of advocacy, honesty, expertise, independence, loyalty, and fairness
  • Serves as a framework for ethical decision-making and conduct in the public relations profession
• IABC Code of Ethics outlines the professional standards and principles of conduct for members of the International Association of Business Communicators
  • Focuses on the principles of honesty, accuracy, integrity, transparency, and acting in the public interest
  • Provides guidance on ethical issues related to professional conduct, conflicts of interest, and confidentiality
• Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communication Management's Global Code of Ethics establishes a set of universal principles for the practice of public relations and communication management worldwide
  • Emphasizes the importance of integrity, transparency, and respect for diversity and local customs
  • Serves as a global benchmark for ethical conduct in the public relations profession
• Arthur W. Page Society's Page Principles outline a set of core beliefs and values for the practice of public relations
  • Emphasizes the importance of telling the truth, proving it with action, listening to stakeholders, and managing for tomorrow
  • Provides a framework for building and maintaining public trust and credibility
• Institute for Public Relations' Code of Research Ethics provides guidelines for conducting ethical research in public relations
  • Emphasizes the importance of objectivity, transparency, and respect for participants' rights and well-being
  • Serves as a standard for ethical research practices in the public relations profession

Applying Ethics to PR Scenarios

• Identify the ethical issue or dilemma at hand
  • Clearly define the problem and the parties involved
  • Consider the potential consequences of different courses of action
• Gather relevant information and facts
  • Conduct research to understand the context and background of the situation
  • Consult with stakeholders and experts to gain diverse perspectives
• Evaluate the situation using ethical theories and frameworks
  • Apply relevant ethical principles (utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics) to the scenario
  • Consider how different ethical frameworks (PRSA Code of Ethics, IABC Code of Ethics) would guide decision-making
• Generate alternative courses of action
  • Brainstorm potential solutions that align with ethical principles and values
  • Consider the pros and cons of each alternative
• Make a decision and implement the chosen course of action
  • Select the option that best balances ethical considerations and practical outcomes
  • Develop a plan for communicating and executing the decision
• Evaluate the outcomes and learn from the experience
  • Assess the effectiveness and ethical soundness of the decision
  • Identify lessons learned and areas for improvement in future ethical decision-making

Stakeholder Considerations

• Identify all relevant stakeholders
  • Consider individuals and groups who may be affected by or have an interest in the situation (employees, customers, shareholders, communities)
  • Recognize that stakeholders may have diverse and sometimes conflicting needs and expectations
• Prioritize stakeholders based on their level of influence and impact
  • Assess the power and legitimacy of each stakeholder group
  • Determine which stakeholders are most critical to the success and reputation of the organization
• Engage in dialogue and consultation with stakeholders
  • Seek to understand stakeholders' perspectives, concerns, and expectations
  • Provide opportunities for stakeholders to voice their opinions and participate in decision-making processes
• Balance stakeholder interests and expectations
  • Strive to find solutions that satisfy the needs of multiple stakeholder groups
  • Recognize that perfect solutions may not always be possible, and trade-offs may be necessary
• Communicate transparently and honestly with stakeholders
  • Keep stakeholders informed about decisions, actions, and outcomes
  • Provide clear, accurate, and timely information to build trust and credibility
• Monitor and adapt to changes in stakeholder needs and expectations
  • Regularly assess stakeholder satisfaction and engagement
  • Be prepared to adjust strategies and tactics in response to evolving stakeholder concerns

Legal vs. Ethical Obligations

• Legal obligations are requirements mandated by law
  • Failure to comply with legal obligations can result in fines, penalties, or legal action
  • Examples of legal obligations in PR include truth in advertising, disclosure of sponsored content, and protection of client confidentiality
• Ethical obligations are moral duties or responsibilities that may go beyond legal requirements
  • Adherence to ethical obligations is often voluntary and based on professional codes of conduct or personal values
  • Examples of ethical obligations in PR include providing accurate and truthful information, respecting privacy, and avoiding conflicts of interest
• Legal and ethical obligations may sometimes conflict
  • In some cases, actions that are legally permissible may not be considered ethically appropriate
  • PR professionals must navigate these tensions and make decisions that balance legal compliance with ethical principles
• Ethical obligations can vary across cultures and contexts
  • What is considered ethical in one cultural setting may not be viewed the same way in another
  • PR professionals must be sensitive to cultural differences and adapt their ethical decision-making accordingly
• Fulfilling ethical obligations can enhance trust and credibility
  • Consistently acting in an ethical manner can build long-term relationships with stakeholders
  • Demonstrating a commitment to ethics can differentiate an organization from its competitors
• Ethical conduct can help mitigate legal risks
  • By adhering to ethical principles, PR professionals can reduce the likelihood of engaging in practices that may violate legal requirements
  • A strong ethical foundation can provide a defense against legal challenges or public scrutiny

Ethical Decision-Making Models

• TARES Test (Truthfulness, Authenticity, Respect, Equity, Social Responsibility)
  • Evaluates the ethical soundness of communication based on five principles
  • Asks whether the communication is truthful, genuine, respectful, fair, and socially responsible
• Potter Box
  • A four-step process for analyzing ethical dilemmas
  • Involves defining the situation, identifying values, selecting principles, and choosing loyalties
• Ethical Pyramid
  • A hierarchical model that prioritizes ethical considerations
  • Places ethical foundations at the base, ethical values in the middle, and ethical applications at the top
• Blanchard and Peale's 3-Step Model
  • A simple framework for ethical decision-making
  • Involves asking whether the decision is legal, fair, and how it would look on the front page of a newspaper
• Kidder's Ethical Checkpoints
  • A series of questions to guide ethical decision-making
  • Includes considerations of ends-based, rule-based, and care-based principles
• Stakeholder Impact Analysis
  • A process for assessing the potential effects of a decision on various stakeholder groups
  • Involves identifying stakeholders, evaluating impacts, and considering alternative courses of action

Case Studies in PR Ethics

• Edelman and the Wal-Marting Across America Blog (2006)
  • Edelman failed to disclose that a seemingly authentic blog was actually sponsored by Wal-Mart
  • Raises issues of transparency, disclosure, and astroturfing in social media
• Burson-Marsteller and the Facebook Smear Campaign (2011)
  • Burson-Marsteller engaged in a secret campaign to disparage Google on behalf of Facebook
  • Highlights the dangers of engaging in covert, deceptive tactics and the importance of transparency
• Ketchum and the Armstrong Williams Controversy (2005)
  • Ketchum paid commentator Armstrong Williams to promote No Child Left Behind without disclosing the arrangement
  • Illustrates the ethical pitfalls of undisclosed paid endorsements and the need for transparency in media relations
• Hill+Knowlton and the Citizens for a Free Kuwait Campaign (1990)
  • Hill+Knowlton orchestrated a campaign to build support for the Gulf War based on false testimony
  • Demonstrates the risks of spreading misinformation and the importance of verifying facts and sources
• Fleishman-Hillard and the Los Angeles DWP Scandal (2004)
  • Fleishman-Hillard overbilled the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power for PR services
  • Underscores the importance of financial integrity, accurate billing, and ethical business practices
• APCO Worldwide and the Malaysia Palm Oil Council (2019)
  • APCO Worldwide faced criticism for representing the Malaysian Palm Oil Council despite concerns over deforestation and human rights abuses
  • Raises questions about the ethics of representing controversial clients and the need for due diligence and risk assessment

Emerging Ethical Challenges in PR

• Deepfakes and synthetic media
  • The rise of AI-generated content that can be used to deceive or manipulate audiences
  • PR professionals must be vigilant in verifying the authenticity of media and combating the spread of misinformation
• Influencer marketing and disclosure
  • The growing use of social media influencers for product promotion and brand advocacy
  • PR professionals must ensure proper disclosure of sponsored content and adherence to FTC guidelines
• Data privacy and security
  • The increasing collection and use of personal data for targeted communication and advertising
  • PR professionals must prioritize the protection of consumer privacy and comply with data protection regulations (GDPR, CCPA)
• Diversity, equity, and inclusion
  • The need for PR to promote and reflect the diversity of the audiences they serve
  • PR professionals must work to create inclusive campaigns, diversify their teams, and address issues of representation and equity
• Cancel culture and online reputation management
  • The impact of social media backlash and calls for boycotts on brands and individuals
  • PR professionals must navigate the challenges of managing online reputation, responding to crises, and balancing free speech with social responsibility
• Ethical implications of AI and automation in PR
  • The growing use of AI tools for tasks such as media monitoring, content creation, and sentiment analysis
  • PR professionals must consider the ethical implications of relying on algorithms and ensure human oversight and judgment in decision-making