🏳️‍🌈Queer Theory Unit 3 – Gender & Sexuality: Constructionism vs Essentialism

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions and identities of men, women, and gender diverse people
• Sex is a label assigned at birth based on the appearance of external genitalia (male, female, or intersex)
• Sexuality encompasses sexual orientation, attraction, behavior and identity
• Essentialism is the view that certain categories (like gender and sexuality) have an underlying reality or true nature that is unchanging and not dependent on social context
• Constructionism posits that reality is socially constructed and what we perceive as reality is shaped by social, cultural and historical factors
  • Emphasizes the role of language, power relations and social interactions in shaping our understanding of the world
• Queer theory is a field of critical theory that emerged in the early 1990s out of the fields of queer studies and women's studies
  • Challenges the categorization of gender and sexuality and critiques heteronormativity

Historical Context

• Early sexologists in the late 19th century, such as Richard von Krafft-Ebing and Havelock Ellis, viewed homosexuality as a congenital anomaly and a sign of degeneracy
• In the mid-20th century, the Kinsey Reports (1948, 1953) challenged prevalent beliefs about sexuality and claimed that sexual behavior could be seen on a continuum
• The feminist movement of the 1960s and 1970s began to question traditional gender roles and the notion that biology is destiny
  • Simone de Beauvoir's The Second Sex (1949) was a key text, arguing that "one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman"
• The gay liberation movement emerged after the Stonewall Riots in 1969, fighting against the pathologization and criminalization of homosexuality
• In 1973, the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its list of mental illnesses in the DSM
• The emergence of queer theory in the early 1990s, influenced by the work of Michel Foucault, Judith Butler and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, further challenged essentialist notions of gender and sexuality

Essentialism in Gender and Sexuality

• Essentialist views see gender and sexual identities as innate, fixed and biologically determined
  • Assumes that there are essential, universal male and female natures that exist independently of cultural context
• Biological essentialism looks for a genetic or hormonal basis for gender differences and sexual orientation
  • Research on prenatal hormones, brain structures, and twin studies is often used to support this view
• Evolutionary psychology explains gender differences as the result of evolutionary adaptations
  • E.g. males are naturally promiscuous to spread their genes, females are naturally monogamous to ensure paternal investment
• Essentialist views have been used to justify gender inequality and heteronormativity
  • If gender roles are seen as natural and inevitable, this can legitimize patriarchal social structures
• Essentialist explanations for homosexuality have been used both to pathologize it as unnatural and to argue for gay rights on the basis that it is an innate, unchosen characteristic

Constructionism: A Social Perspective

• Constructionist views see gender and sexuality as socially constructed categories that vary across time and culture
• Gender is seen as a performance or social role that we learn to play through socialization and social interaction
  • Judith Butler's concept of gender performativity - gender is something we do, not something we are
• The social construction of sexuality refers to how sexual identities, desires and practices are shaped by cultural and historical factors
  • E.g. the concept of homosexuality as a distinct identity only emerged in the West in the late 19th century
• Language plays a key role in the social construction of reality by creating categories and shaping how we perceive the world
  • E.g. the binary categories of heterosexual/homosexual or man/woman are seen as linguistic constructs, not natural facts
• Power relations and social structures (like patriarchy and heteronormativity) shape which sexual and gender expressions are considered normal or deviant
• Intersectionality highlights how gender and sexuality intersect with other socially constructed categories like race, class, and disability to shape people's experiences and identities

Comparing Essentialist and Constructionist Views

• Essentialism sees gender and sexuality as biologically based and fixed, while constructionism sees them as socially produced and malleable
• Essentialism tends to reinforce gender and sexual binaries (male/female, gay/straight), while constructionism challenges these binaries and recognizes diversity and fluidity
• Essentialism looks for universal truths about gender and sexuality that apply across cultures, while constructionism emphasizes cultural and historical specificity
  • E.g. essentialism might claim that gender roles are the same everywhere, while constructionism points out how they vary between cultures
• Essentialism is often associated with conservative political views and has been used to justify gender inequality and heteronormativity, while constructionism aligns more with progressive politics and social justice movements
• However, some argue that a strategic essentialism can be useful for disadvantaged groups to make political claims and build solidarity around a shared identity
  • E.g. the gay rights movement has sometimes relied on essentialist arguments that sexual orientation is innate and fixed

Impact on LGBTQ+ Identities and Rights

• Essentialist views have been used both to stigmatize LGBTQ+ people as unnatural deviants and to argue for their rights on the basis of an innate, unchosen identity
  • The "born this way" argument for gay rights relies on an essentialist view of sexual orientation
• Constructionist views challenge the idea that heterosexuality is the natural norm and that LGBTQ+ identities are abnormal or unnatural
  • Highlights the diversity of sexual and gender expressions across cultures and throughout history
• Queer theory, influenced by constructionism, rejects stable sexual and gender identities and embraces fluidity, change and resistance to categorization
  • Challenges the assimilationist politics of the mainstream gay rights movement and its reliance on fixed identities
• Trans and non-binary identities challenge essentialist notions of a strict gender binary based on biological sex
  • Reveals gender as a spectrum and a social construct rather than a natural fact
• Intersectional approaches highlight how LGBTQ+ people's experiences are shaped by their multiple, intersecting identities and social locations
  • E.g. the experiences of a white gay man differ from those of a black lesbian woman

Contemporary Debates and Critiques

• Some argue that constructionism goes too far in denying any biological basis for gender and sexuality and that a pure social constructionism is untenable
  • Propose an interactionist view that sees biology and culture as mutually shaping each other
• The role of choice and agency in sexual and gender identities is debated
  • Do we choose our identities or are they socially determined? What role does individual agency play?
• The universality of gender and sexual categories across cultures is questioned
  • Are terms like "gay," "straight," "man," and "woman" applicable in all cultural contexts or are they Western constructs?
• Some feminists critique queer theory for deconstructing the category of "woman" and undermining the basis for feminist politics
  • Argue that we need a stable concept of woman to be able to fight gender oppression
• The tension between strategic essentialism and deconstruction in LGBTQ+ politics remains unresolved
  • Is it politically useful to rely on fixed identities or does this ultimately reinforce limiting norms?

Practical Applications and Real-World Examples

• Understanding the social construction of gender can help in challenging gender stereotypes and promoting gender equality
  • E.g. recognizing that gender roles are not natural or inevitable but are socially created and can be changed
• Awareness of the diversity of sexual and gender identities can promote greater acceptance and inclusion of LGBTQ+ people
  • E.g. recognizing non-binary and trans identities, using inclusive language, providing gender-neutral bathrooms
• Sex education that goes beyond a binary, heteronormative, essentialist view can provide a more comprehensive understanding of gender and sexuality
  • E.g. discussing the spectrum of sexual orientation and gender identity, challenging gender stereotypes
• Constructionist views can inform more effective HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment by recognizing the social factors that shape sexual behavior and vulnerability
  • E.g. addressing stigma, gender inequalities, and the specific needs of different communities
• Recognizing the intersectionality of gender, sexuality, race, class etc. can lead to more inclusive and effective social movements and policies
  • E.g. the Black Lives Matter movement has embraced a queer and feminist lens, recognizing the specific oppression faced by black women and LGBTQ+ people of color