1.2 Historical overview of Chinese sacred arts

Chinese sacred arts evolved from Neolithic pottery to sophisticated Bronze Age rituals. The introduction of Buddhism during the Han dynasty transformed artistic expression, blending with indigenous Confucian and Daoist traditions.

The Tang dynasty marked a golden age, synthesizing diverse influences. Imperial patronage, philosophical developments, and social factors shaped sacred arts throughout Chinese history, reflecting changing beliefs and cultural dynamics.

Evolution of Chinese Sacred Arts

Neolithic Period (c. 10,000-2000 BCE)

• Earliest known examples of Chinese sacred art date back to this period
• Pottery, jade carvings, and painted petroglyphs with spiritual and ritualistic significance
• Used in shamanic rituals and burial practices, reflecting early beliefs and practices

Bronze Age (Shang and Zhou Dynasties, c. 1600-256 BCE)

• Shang dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE) developed sophisticated bronze casting techniques
  • Created ritual vessels, weapons, and sacred objects with intricate designs and inscriptions
  • Used in ancestral worship and divination practices, reflecting the importance of lineage and communication with the spirit world
• Zhou dynasty (1046-256 BCE) saw the emergence of Confucianism and Daoism
  • Confucian art emphasized social harmony, filial piety, and moral cultivation (restrained elegance of ritual bronzes and ceremonial objects)
  • Daoist art celebrated nature, spontaneity, and individual expression (ink painting and calligraphy)

Introduction of Buddhism (Han Dynasty, 202 BCE-220 CE)

• Buddhism introduced to China during the Han dynasty, transforming Chinese sacred arts
• Development of new artistic forms (sculpture, cave temples, scroll paintings)
• Depiction of Buddhist deities and narratives, reflecting the integration of foreign religious ideas into Chinese culture

Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE)

• Often regarded as a golden age of Chinese sacred arts
• Cosmopolitan culture absorbing influences from Central Asia and beyond
• Dynamic synthesis of Buddhist, Daoist, and Confucian elements in art and architecture
• Flourishing of Buddhist art and architecture, landscape painting, and calligraphy as high art forms

Historical Influences on Sacred Arts

Dynastic Patronage and Imperial Support

• Emperors and court officials commissioned works of art to legitimize rule, assert authority, and promote state ideologies
  • Construction of the Great Wall and Terracotta Army (Qin dynasty) reflected centralization of power and importance of the afterlife
  • Flourishing of Buddhist art (Tang dynasty) supported by emperors Taizong and Wu Zetian to consolidate power and expand influence
• Imperial painting academies and court workshops established to produce works of art for the palace and state ceremonies

Philosophical and Religious Developments

• Rise of Confucianism and Daoism (Zhou dynasty) shaped artistic expression
  • Confucian art emphasized social harmony, moral cultivation, and the ideal of the scholar-official (restrained elegance, emphasis on calligraphy)
  • Daoist art celebrated nature, spontaneity, and individual expression (ink painting, calligraphy, poetry)
• Introduction and spread of Buddhism (Han dynasty onward) transformed sacred arts
  • New artistic forms (sculpture, cave temples, scroll paintings) and iconography developed to depict Buddhist deities and narratives
  • Buddhist art flourished during Northern Wei and Tang dynasties, reflecting growing influence of Buddhism in Chinese society

Social and Cultural Factors

• Rise of the scholar-official class and spread of literacy shaped artistic tastes and styles
  • Landscape painting and calligraphy (Song dynasty) reflected ideals of self-cultivation and expression of inner nature
  • Literati painting tradition (Yuan and Ming dynasties) emphasized personal expression, brushwork, and the unity of painting, poetry, and calligraphy
• Interaction with foreign cultures through trade, diplomacy, and conquest introduced new artistic influences and techniques
  • Central Asian and Indian influences on Buddhist art (Tang dynasty)
  • Islamic influences on ceramics and metalwork (Yuan and Ming dynasties)
  • Western influences on court painting and architecture (Qing dynasty)

Factors Shaping Sacred Arts

Political and Ideological Factors

• Centralization of power and the development of bureaucratic states shaped the production and patronage of sacred arts
  • Qin dynasty's standardization of weights, measures, and writing script reflected in the uniformity of the Terracotta Army
  • Han dynasty's promotion of Confucianism as state ideology led to the proliferation of Confucian temples and ancestral halls
• Dynastic changes and political upheavals led to shifts in artistic styles and patronage
  • Fall of the Han dynasty and the rise of the Northern and Southern dynasties led to the fragmentation of artistic traditions and the emergence of regional styles
  • Mongol conquest and the establishment of the Yuan dynasty introduced new artistic influences from Central and West Asia

Economic and Technological Factors

• Growth of agriculture, trade, and urban centers provided new resources and markets for sacred arts
  • Silk Road trade introduced new materials (lapis lazuli, cobalt blue) and techniques (cloisonné, glass-making) to Chinese art
  • Expansion of the porcelain industry (Tang and Song dynasties) led to the development of new glazes, shapes, and decorative techniques
• Advances in technology and craft production enabled the creation of more sophisticated and elaborate works of art
  • Development of the potter's wheel and the use of molds allowed for mass production of ceramic figures and vessels
  • Invention of paper and woodblock printing facilitated the dissemination of Buddhist sutras and images
  • Refinement of bronze casting, lacquerware, and textile production techniques led to the creation of highly intricate and decorative objects

Religious and Philosophical Factors

• Changing religious beliefs and practices shaped the iconography, symbolism, and function of sacred arts
  • Popularity of Mahayana Buddhism (Tang dynasty) led to the creation of monumental Buddha statues and elaborate cave temples (Mogao Caves, Longmen Grottoes)
  • Neo-Confucian revival (Song dynasty) emphasized the importance of ritual and moral cultivation, reflected in the production of ceremonial objects and scholar's implements
• Philosophical and aesthetic theories influenced the style, composition, and meaning of sacred arts
  • Daoist concept of the unity of man and nature shaped the development of landscape painting and garden design
  • Buddhist theory of the "six principles" of painting (rhythm, brushwork, composition, coloring, depth, and copying) influenced the evaluation and appreciation of art
  • Confucian emphasis on the "rectification of names" and the correspondence between form and content shaped the development of calligraphy and the theory of painting

Notable Artists and Patrons

Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE)

• Wu Daozi (680-740 CE), renowned painter famous for dynamic and expressive Buddhist murals
  • Painted murals in temples and caves throughout China (Mogao Caves, Longmen Grottoes)
  • Developed the "flying white" technique of using dry brush strokes to create a sense of movement and vitality
• Wang Wei (699-759 CE), poet, painter, and musician credited with founding the Southern School of landscape painting
  • Emphasized the expressive potential of brushwork and the unity of painting and poetry
  • Influenced later generations of scholar-painters and the development of the literati painting tradition

Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE)

• Li Cheng (919-967 CE), pioneer of the monumental landscape style
  • Used bold brushstrokes and dramatic compositions to convey the grandeur and mystery of the natural world
  • Influenced the development of the Northern School of landscape painting and the concept of "monumental landscape"
• Emperor Huizong (1082-1135 CE), renowned painter, calligrapher, and patron of the arts
  • Established the Imperial Painting Academy and promoted a refined, elegant style of court painting
  • Collected and catalogued ancient paintings and calligraphy, setting standards for connoisseurship and art historical scholarship

Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 CE)

• Zhao Mengfu (1254-1322 CE), scholar, painter, and calligrapher who revived classical traditions
  • Revived the classical tradition of figure painting and the "blue-and-green" landscape style of the Tang dynasty
  • Set the standard for literati painting in the later imperial period, emphasizing personal expression and the unity of the three perfections (painting, poetry, and calligraphy)

Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368-1912 CE)

• Dong Qichang (1555-1636 CE), influential painter, calligrapher, and art theorist
  • Developed the theory of the Northern and Southern Schools of painting, emphasizing the expressive potential of brushwork and the transmission of the "great synthesis" of earlier masters
  • Influenced the development of orthodox lineages of scholar-painting and the concept of the "amateur ideal" in later Chinese art
• The Kangxi Emperor (1654-1722 CE), Qing dynasty patron and collector
  • Commissioned a wide range of works (monumental landscape paintings, porcelain, jade carvings) reflecting his interest in Western science and technology and respect for Chinese cultural traditions
  • Sponsored the compilation of the Peiwen Yunfu, a rhyming dictionary and encyclopedia that became a standard reference work for scholars and artists