4.2 Buddhist sculpture and iconography

Buddhist sculpture and iconography are crucial elements of sacred art in China. They visually represent Buddhist teachings and deities, helping devotees connect with spiritual concepts. From Buddha statues to bodhisattva figures, these artworks embody complex symbolism and evolving artistic styles.

Chinese Buddhist sculpture developed unique characteristics over time. Early works were influenced by Indian and Central Asian styles, but later pieces incorporated distinctly Chinese elements. Materials like bronze, stone, and wood were used to create everything from small portable statues to massive cave carvings.

Buddhist Deity Iconography

Depictions of the Buddha

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• The Buddha is typically depicted with a serene facial expression, conveying a sense of inner peace and enlightenment
• Elongated earlobes symbolize the Buddha's former status as a prince and his renunciation of worldly attachments
• The ushnisha, a topknot or cranial protuberance on the Buddha's head, represents his supreme wisdom and attainment of enlightenment
• An urna, a mark between the eyebrows, is another distinguishing feature of the Buddha, often depicted as a dot or small circle
• The Buddha is often shown seated in a meditative pose (lotus position) with his hands forming specific mudras (bhumisparsa mudra)

Bodhisattva Iconography

• Bodhisattvas are compassionate beings who have attained enlightenment but postpone entering nirvana to help others on their spiritual path
• They are often depicted adorned with jewelry, crowns, and elaborate garments, symbolizing their spiritual wealth and compassion
• Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, is often portrayed with multiple heads and arms holding various symbolic objects (lotus flower, vase, rosary)
• In China, Avalokiteshvara is frequently depicted in a female form known as Guanyin, emphasizing the bodhisattva's compassionate and nurturing qualities
• Manjushri, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom, is typically shown wielding a sword in one hand, symbolizing the cutting through of ignorance, and holding a lotus flower or sutra in the other, representing the perfection of wisdom
• Ksitigarbha, the Bodhisattva of the Underworld, is depicted as a monk holding a staff with six rings, representing his vow to help beings in the six realms of existence, and a wish-fulfilling jewel (cintamani)

Protective Deities and Their Attributes

• Protective deities, such as the Four Heavenly Kings and Vajrapani, are often depicted with fierce expressions and muscular bodies to ward off evil and protect the Buddha's teachings
• The Four Heavenly Kings are usually portrayed holding specific objects: a sword (Dhrtarastra), a lute (Virudhaka), a stupa (Virupaksa), and a snake or dragon (Vaisravana)
• Vajrapani, the protector of the Buddha, is often shown holding a vajra (thunderbolt) in his hand, symbolizing the indestructible nature of enlightenment
• Other protective deities, such as the Twelve Heavenly Generals, are depicted wearing armor and holding various weapons (swords, spears, bows) to defend the Dharma and the faithful

Sculptural Styles in Chinese Art

Evolution of Chinese Buddhist Sculptural Styles

• Early Buddhist sculpture in China, during the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-589 CE), was heavily influenced by the Gandharan style from Central Asia, featuring more naturalistic and anatomically proportionate figures
• The Northern Qi (550-577 CE) and Northern Zhou (557-581 CE) periods saw the development of a distinct Chinese style, characterized by elongated and slender figures with flowing robes and abstract, linear drapery
• The Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) is known for its realistic and voluptuous figures, reflecting the influence of Indian Gupta art, with sculptures featuring rounded faces, full bodies, and intricate drapery
• The Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) saw a shift towards more simplified and abstract forms, with sculptures characterized by smooth surfaces, minimal ornamentation, and a focus on capturing the inner essence of the depicted figures

Materials Used in Chinese Buddhist Sculpture

• Bronze was favored for its durability and suitability for creating intricate designs, particularly during the Tang and Song dynasties
• Stone, such as limestone and sandstone, was widely used for cave temples (Yungang, Longmen) and large outdoor sculptures (Leshan Giant Buddha)
• Wood was used for smaller, portable sculptures and for sculptures intended for indoor display in temples and shrines
• Clay, often mixed with straw or other organic materials, was used for creating affordable and easily produced sculptures for popular devotion

Symbolic Meaning of Buddhist Sculpture

Mudras and Postures

• Hand gestures, known as mudras, convey specific meanings and intentions in Buddhist sculpture
• The bhumisparsa mudra, or earth-touching gesture, symbolizes the Buddha's enlightenment and his calling upon the earth to witness his achievement
• The dhyana mudra, with hands resting in the lap, palms upward, represents meditation and contemplation
• The varada mudra, with the palm facing outward, signifies the granting of blessings and wishes
• The lotus position, with the legs crossed and the soles of the feet visible, represents purity and transcendence, as the lotus rises untainted from the muddy waters

Iconographic Attributes and Their Significance

• The ushnisha, or cranial protuberance on the Buddha's head, symbolizes his supreme wisdom and attainment of enlightenment
• Elongated earlobes on the Buddha and bodhisattvas signify their former status as royalty and their renunciation of worldly attachments
• The third eye on the forehead of some deities, such as Vairocana Buddha, represents their ability to see beyond the material world and perceive ultimate reality
• Bodhisattvas are often depicted with multiple heads and arms, symbolizing their ability to perceive the suffering of all beings and their readiness to help in various ways
• The wheel (dharmachakra) represents the Buddha's teaching and the path to enlightenment
• The lotus symbolizes purity, spiritual awakening, and the potential for enlightenment within all beings
• Sutras, or Buddhist scriptures, held by bodhisattvas represent the wisdom and knowledge necessary for attaining enlightenment

Evolution of Buddhist Sculpture in China

Introduction and Adaptation of Buddhist Art

• The introduction of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road during the Han Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) led to the gradual adaptation and sinicization of Buddhist art to suit Chinese cultural preferences and aesthetics
• During the Northern Wei period (386-535 CE), Buddhist cave temples, such as those at Yungang and Longmen, showcased the integration of Chinese artistic traditions with the Indian Gupta style, featuring more sinicized facial features and drapery patterns

Peak and Decline of Buddhist Sculptural Art

• The Tang Dynasty witnessed a peak in Buddhist sculptural art, with the creation of monumental sculptures, such as the Leshan Giant Buddha, and the proliferation of smaller, portable sculptures for private devotion
• The Song Dynasty saw a shift towards more introspective and abstract representations of Buddhist figures, reflecting the influence of Chan (Zen) Buddhism and its emphasis on inner enlightenment
• The decline of Buddhism in China during the late Tang and Song periods led to a decrease in the production of Buddhist sculpture, with a greater focus on smaller, more personal devotional objects

Resurgence and Modern Challenges

• The Yuan (1271-1368), Ming (1368-1644), and Qing (1644-1912) dynasties saw a resurgence of Buddhist sculptural art, often incorporating elements from Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhism, such as wrathful deities (Mahakala, Yamantaka) and tantric iconography
• The 20th century brought new challenges and opportunities for Buddhist sculptural art in China, with the destruction of many temples and sculptures during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)
• The reform era has seen a revival of Buddhist art in China, with the restoration of historical sculptures and the creation of new works inspired by traditional iconography and styles