9.4 Global education policy borrowing

Global education policy borrowing involves transferring education practices across borders, often from developed to developing countries. This phenomenon, rooted in colonialism, has evolved with international organizations like UNESCO and the World Bank playing key roles in promoting Western education models globally.

Key actors in this process include multilateral organizations, consultants, and think tanks. These entities shape policy discourses, offer advice, and facilitate policy transfer through research and best practice guidelines. Their influence has been criticized for advancing private sector interests and promoting narrow policy solutions.

Origins of global education policy borrowing

• Global education policy borrowing involves the transfer of education policies, practices, and ideas across national borders, often from developed to developing countries
• The origins of this phenomenon can be traced back to the colonial era, when European powers imposed their education systems on colonized territories
• In the post-World War II period, international organizations such as UNESCO and the World Bank began to play a more active role in promoting the spread of Western education models as part of modernization and development agendas

Key actors in global education policy networks

International organizations and policy borrowing

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• Multilateral organizations like the World Bank, OECD, and UNESCO have been influential in shaping global education policy discourses and promoting particular policy solutions (standardized testing, school choice)
• These organizations often tie education policy reforms to aid and loan conditionality, compelling developing countries to adopt certain policies in exchange for financial support
• International organizations also facilitate policy transfer through the production and dissemination of research, data, and best practice guidelines that promote specific policy approaches

Role of consultants and think tanks

• Private consultancy firms (McKinsey & Company) and think tanks (Brookings Institution) have emerged as key players in global education policy networks, offering policy advice and technical assistance to governments and international organizations
• These actors often promote market-oriented education reforms and help to package and disseminate policy ideas across national contexts
• The increasing influence of consultants and think tanks in global education policy has been criticized for advancing the interests of private sector actors and promoting a narrow range of policy solutions

Mechanisms of global education policy transfer

Policy learning and lesson drawing

• Policy learning involves the voluntary adoption of policies and practices from other countries based on the perception that they have been successful elsewhere
• Governments may engage in lesson drawing by studying the education systems of high-performing countries (Finland, Singapore) and adapting elements of their policies to the local context
• Policy learning is facilitated by international benchmarking studies (PISA) and the sharing of best practices through policy networks and conferences

Coercive transfer through aid conditionality

• Coercive policy transfer occurs when powerful actors (World Bank) compel weaker states to adopt certain policies as a condition of receiving aid, loans, or other forms of support
• Structural adjustment programs in the 1980s and 1990s often required developing countries to implement market-oriented education reforms (user fees, privatization) in exchange for financial assistance
• Critics argue that coercive policy transfer undermines national sovereignty and leads to the imposition of inappropriate or ineffective policies

Soft forms of policy influence

• In addition to direct coercion, global education policy transfer can occur through softer forms of influence, such as policy recommendations, technical assistance, and the creation of international norms and standards
• International organizations and policy networks may exert soft power by shaping the terms of policy debates, defining what counts as best practice, and creating a sense of inevitability around certain policy directions
• Soft forms of policy influence can lead to the internalization of global policy discourses and the self-imposition of policy reforms by national governments

Critiques of global education policy borrowing

Decontextualized best practices

• Critics argue that global education policy borrowing often involves the uncritical transfer of decontextualized best practices from one setting to another, without sufficient attention to local needs, capacities, and cultural differences
• The promotion of one-size-fits-all policy solutions (charter schools, performance pay for teachers) fails to recognize the diversity of education systems and the importance of adapting policies to specific contexts
• Decontextualized policy borrowing can lead to the implementation of inappropriate or ineffective reforms that do not address the underlying challenges facing education systems in different countries

Convergence vs divergence in policy outcomes

• While global education policy borrowing is often assumed to lead to convergence in policy outcomes, research suggests that the effects of policy transfer are more complex and varied
• Countries may adopt similar policies but implement them in different ways, leading to divergent outcomes based on local political, economic, and social factors
• The uneven impact of global education policies can exacerbate existing inequalities within and between countries, as some groups are better positioned to benefit from policy reforms than others

Reproduction of global inequalities

• Critics argue that global education policy borrowing reflects and reinforces unequal power relations between developed and developing countries, as well as between global North and South
• The imposition of Western education models and policy agendas on developing countries can be seen as a form of neo-colonialism that undermines local knowledge, values, and practices
• The dominance of English as the language of global education policy discourse and the underrepresentation of voices from the global South in policy debates further entrenches global inequalities

Case studies of education policy borrowing

Adoption of outcomes-based education

• Outcomes-based education (OBE) is a policy approach that focuses on defining and measuring student learning outcomes rather than inputs or processes
• OBE was widely promoted by international organizations and consultants in the 1990s and adopted by countries around the world (South Africa, Australia), often as part of broader education reform agendas
• Critics argue that the implementation of OBE has been problematic in many contexts due to a lack of resources, teacher training, and alignment with local curricula and assessment practices

Spread of standardized testing regimes

• The use of standardized testing to measure student learning outcomes and evaluate education system performance has become increasingly prevalent globally, often as a result of policy borrowing
• International assessments like PISA have encouraged countries to adopt similar testing regimes and benchmark their performance against other nations
• The spread of standardized testing has been criticized for narrowing curricula, encouraging teaching to the test, and exacerbating educational inequalities

Emulation of successful education systems

• Countries may seek to emulate the policies and practices of education systems that are perceived to be successful, such as Finland, Singapore, or Shanghai
• Policymakers may attempt to borrow specific elements of these systems (teacher training, curriculum design) or adopt their overall policy approaches (equity-focused funding, holistic student development)
• However, efforts to emulate successful education systems often fail to account for differences in cultural, political, and economic contexts that shape policy outcomes

Alternatives to global policy borrowing

Context-sensitive policy adaptation

• Rather than uncritically borrowing policies from other countries, policymakers may engage in a process of context-sensitive policy adaptation that takes into account local needs, capacities, and values
• This involves critically examining the assumptions and evidence behind policy ideas, assessing their feasibility and desirability in the local context, and adapting them to fit local circumstances
• Context-sensitive policy adaptation requires a deep understanding of the local education system and a willingness to engage in experimentation and learning

Locally-driven education reform agendas

• An alternative to global policy borrowing is the development of locally-driven education reform agendas that prioritize the needs and aspirations of national and sub-national communities
• This may involve the creation of indigenous knowledge systems, the incorporation of local languages and cultures into curricula, and the empowerment of local stakeholders (teachers, parents, students) in decision-making processes
• Locally-driven reforms can help to build a sense of ownership and accountability for education outcomes and ensure that policies are responsive to the diverse needs of different communities

South-South cooperation and policy sharing

• Rather than relying on policy solutions from the global North, countries in the global South may engage in South-South cooperation and policy sharing to learn from each other's experiences and develop context-appropriate solutions
• This can involve the creation of regional policy networks, the sharing of best practices and lessons learned, and the collaborative development of new policy approaches
• South-South cooperation can help to challenge the dominance of Western education models and promote a more diverse and inclusive global education policy discourse