are a crucial tool in crystallography, helping us describe and analyze crystal structures. They provide a simple way to identify planes and directions within crystals, using just three numbers to represent complex geometric relationships.
Understanding Miller indices is key to interpreting diffraction patterns and determining crystal structures. They're used in various applications, from to , and play a vital role in surface and interface studies.
Definition of Miller indices
Miller indices are a notation system used to describe the of crystal planes and directions in a crystal lattice
Provide a concise way to identify and label specific planes and directions within a crystalline structure
Essential tool in crystallography for characterizing and analyzing the geometric properties of crystals
Notation for Miller indices
(hkl) format
Miller indices are typically expressed as a set of three integers enclosed in parentheses: (hkl)
Each integer represents a reciprocal of the fractional intercept along one of the three principal axes (x, y, z) of the crystal lattice
Convention is to write the indices in the order of (hkl) without commas or spaces between the integers
Meaning of h, k, and l
h, k, and l are the Miller indices corresponding to the x, y, and z axes, respectively
They indicate the reciprocal of the fractional intercepts of the plane with each axis
For example, represents a plane that intercepts the x-axis at 1 and is parallel to both the y and z axes
Conventions for negative indices
Negative Miller indices are denoted by placing a bar over the corresponding integer (e.g., (1ˉ00))
Negative indices indicate that the plane intercepts the negative side of the respective axis
Planes with negative indices are crystallographically equivalent to their positive counterparts but have opposite orientations
Relationship to crystal planes
Plane orientation
Miller indices define the orientation of a crystal plane relative to the crystallographic axes
Planes with the same Miller indices are parallel to each other and have the same orientation within the crystal lattice
Different sets of Miller indices correspond to different plane orientations
Interplanar spacing
Miller indices are related to the (dhkl) between parallel planes in a crystal
The interplanar spacing depends on the lattice parameters and the values of h, k, and l
For crystals, the interplanar spacing is given by: dhkl=h2+k2+l2a, where a is the lattice constant
Parallel planes
Planes with the same Miller indices or integer multiples of the same indices are parallel to each other
For example, (100), (200), and (300) planes are all parallel to each other
Parallel planes have the same orientation but different interplanar spacings
Calculation of Miller indices
Intercepts on crystallographic axes
To determine the Miller indices of a plane, first find the intercepts of the plane with the x, y, and z axes
Intercepts are expressed as fractions of the lattice constants (a, b, c) along each axis
For example, if a plane intercepts the x, y, and z axes at (2a, 3b, ∞c), the fractional intercepts are (1/2, 1/3, 0)
Conversion to smallest integer values
Take the reciprocal of the fractional intercepts (excluding any zeros)
Clear fractions by multiplying all values by the least common denominator
Reduce the indices to the smallest integer values while maintaining their ratio
Examples for cubic crystals
For a plane intercepting the axes at (a, a, a), the fractional intercepts are (1, 1, 1), and the Miller indices are
A plane intercepting at (a, a, ∞) has fractional intercepts (1, 1, 0) and Miller indices (110)
Intercepts at (a, 2a, ∞) give fractional intercepts (1, 1/2, 0) and Miller indices (210)
Significance in crystallography
Identification of crystal planes
Miller indices provide a standardized way to identify and label specific planes within a crystal structure
Enable crystallographers to communicate and compare plane orientations across different crystals and studies
Facilitate the analysis and interpretation of crystallographic data
Determination of crystal structure
Miller indices play a crucial role in determining the crystal structure through techniques like X-ray diffraction
The positions and intensities of diffraction peaks are related to the Miller indices of the diffracting planes
By analyzing the diffraction pattern and indexing the peaks, the crystal structure can be elucidated
Relation to diffraction patterns
In diffraction experiments (e.g., X-ray, electron, or neutron diffraction), the observed diffraction patterns are directly related to the Miller indices of the diffracting planes
Each diffraction spot or peak corresponds to a specific set of Miller indices
The arrangement and intensities of the diffraction spots provide information about the crystal structure and symmetry
Miller indices in different crystal systems
Cubic vs non-cubic lattices
In cubic crystal systems (e.g., simple cubic, face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic), the Miller indices directly correspond to the reciprocal of the fractional intercepts along the axes
For non-cubic lattices (e.g., tetragonal, orthorhombic, ), the relationship between Miller indices and plane orientation is more complex due to different lattice parameters and symmetry
Special cases for hexagonal crystals
Hexagonal crystals require four indices (hkil) to uniquely describe plane orientations
The first three indices (hki) are related to the reciprocal of the fractional intercepts along the a1, a2, and a3 axes in the hexagonal plane
The fourth index (l) corresponds to the reciprocal of the fractional intercept along the c-axis, which is perpendicular to the hexagonal plane
The indices satisfy the condition: h+k+i=0
Applications of Miller indices
X-ray diffraction analysis
Miller indices are essential in X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of crystalline materials
XRD patterns consist of diffraction peaks at specific angles, which are related to the interplanar spacings and Miller indices of the diffracting planes
By indexing the diffraction peaks and determining the corresponding Miller indices, the crystal structure, lattice parameters, and phase composition can be determined
Electron microscopy
In electron microscopy techniques such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Miller indices are used to describe the orientation of crystal planes and zone axes
Electron diffraction patterns obtained in TEM are indexed using Miller indices to identify the crystal structure and orientation
High-resolution TEM images can be interpreted based on the Miller indices of the observed lattice fringes
Surface and interface studies
Miller indices are used to specify the orientation of crystal surfaces and interfaces
Surface properties, such as atomic arrangement, reactivity, and electronic structure, depend on the specific Miller indices of the exposed planes
Studies of surface reconstruction, adsorption, and catalytic behavior often refer to surfaces using their Miller indices (e.g., (100), (110), (111) surfaces)
Interface phenomena, such as grain boundaries and heterostructures, are also described using the Miller indices of the adjoining planes