6.6 Water quality monitoring and protection

Water quality monitoring and protection are crucial aspects of sustainable urban planning. These practices ensure the safety of drinking water, preserve aquatic ecosystems, and maintain overall environmental health in urban areas. By setting standards and implementing monitoring systems, cities can identify and address pollution sources effectively.

Effective water quality management involves a multi-faceted approach. This includes regulating point and nonpoint pollution sources, implementing best management practices, and engaging stakeholders in watershed planning. As new challenges emerge, such as climate change impacts and contaminants of emerging concern, adaptive strategies are essential for maintaining water quality.

Water quality standards

• Set limits on the concentrations of pollutants allowed in water bodies to protect human health and aquatic life
• Vary based on the designated use of the water body (drinking water, recreation, fishing, etc.)
• Provide a framework for monitoring, assessing, and managing water quality in urban areas

Drinking water regulations

Top images from around the web for Drinking water regulations

• 

  Tougher drinking water standards target four carcinogens - Lake Scientist View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Urbanization - LID SWM Planning and Design Guide View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Frontiers | Wastewater Discharge Standards in the Evolving Context of Urban Sustainability–The ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Tougher drinking water standards target four carcinogens - Lake Scientist View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Urbanization - LID SWM Planning and Design Guide View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for Drinking water regulations

• 

  Tougher drinking water standards target four carcinogens - Lake Scientist View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Urbanization - LID SWM Planning and Design Guide View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Frontiers | Wastewater Discharge Standards in the Evolving Context of Urban Sustainability–The ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Tougher drinking water standards target four carcinogens - Lake Scientist View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Urbanization - LID SWM Planning and Design Guide View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• Establish maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for various chemicals, microorganisms, and other substances in drinking water
• Require regular testing and monitoring of public water systems to ensure compliance with standards
• Include treatment requirements, source water protection measures, and public notification procedures for violations

Surface water protection

• Set water quality criteria for rivers, lakes, and other surface waters based on their designated uses
• Require permits for point source discharges (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System - NPDES)
• Encourage the development of Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for impaired water bodies to limit pollutant loads

Groundwater protection

• Establish standards for the protection of underground aquifers that serve as drinking water sources
• Regulate the construction and operation of underground injection wells to prevent contamination
• Require the remediation of contaminated groundwater sites and the prevention of further pollution

Water quality monitoring

• Essential for assessing the effectiveness of water quality standards and identifying potential threats to human and ecosystem health
• Involves regular sampling, analysis, and reporting of water quality data
• Helps inform decision-making and prioritize water quality improvement efforts in urban watersheds

Sampling techniques

• Include grab sampling (single sample at a specific time and location) and composite sampling (multiple samples combined over time or space)
• Require proper sample collection, preservation, and handling procedures to ensure data quality
• May involve the use of automated samplers for continuous or event-based monitoring

Laboratory analysis methods

• Use standardized procedures (EPA-approved methods) to measure physical, chemical, and biological parameters in water samples
• Include tests for nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), bacteria (E. coli), metals, organic compounds, and other pollutants
• Require quality assurance and quality control measures to ensure the accuracy and precision of results

Continuous monitoring systems

• Use in-situ sensors and probes to measure water quality parameters in real-time
• Provide high-frequency data on parameters such as temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and conductivity
• Allow for early detection of water quality problems and rapid response to pollution events

Data interpretation and reporting

• Involve the analysis of water quality data to identify trends, patterns, and exceedances of standards
• Require the use of statistical methods and data visualization tools to communicate results to stakeholders
• Include the preparation of annual water quality reports and the sharing of data through online databases and portals

Sources of water pollution

• Can be classified as point sources (discrete conveyances) or nonpoint sources (diffuse runoff)
• Vary in their composition, magnitude, and spatial and temporal distribution
• Require targeted control strategies based on their unique characteristics and impacts on water quality

Point vs nonpoint sources

• Point sources are regulated under the NPDES permit program and include wastewater treatment plants, industrial facilities, and concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs)
• Nonpoint sources are more difficult to control and include urban runoff, agricultural runoff, and atmospheric deposition
• Both types of sources can contribute significant loads of nutrients, sediment, bacteria, and other pollutants to urban water bodies

Urban runoff and stormwater

• Generated by impervious surfaces (roads, rooftops, parking lots) in urban areas during rainfall events
• Can contain a wide range of pollutants, including nutrients, metals, oil and grease, and bacteria
• Represents a major source of water quality impairment in many urban watersheds

Industrial discharges

• Can contain toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and other pollutants depending on the type of industry
• Are regulated under the NPDES permit program, which sets effluent limits and monitoring requirements
• May require pretreatment of wastewater before discharge to public sewer systems or surface waters

Agricultural runoff

• Can contain high levels of nutrients (from fertilizers), sediment (from erosion), and pesticides
• Is a major contributor to water quality problems in many rural and suburban watersheds
• Can be addressed through best management practices (BMPs) such as cover crops, conservation tillage, and nutrient management plans

Wastewater treatment plant effluent

• Can contain nutrients, bacteria, pharmaceuticals, and other contaminants that are not fully removed by treatment processes
• Is regulated under the NPDES permit program, which sets effluent limits and monitoring requirements
• May require advanced treatment technologies (tertiary treatment) to meet more stringent water quality standards

Water pollution control strategies

• Involve a combination of structural and non-structural measures to reduce pollutant loads and improve water quality
• Are tailored to the specific sources and types of pollution in a given watershed
• Require collaboration among multiple stakeholders, including government agencies, private sector partners, and community groups

Best management practices (BMPs)

• Include a wide range of structural and non-structural measures to control pollution at the source
• Examples include:
  • Structural BMPs: detention ponds, infiltration basins, vegetated swales, permeable pavement
  • Non-structural BMPs: street sweeping, public education, pet waste ordinances, fertilizer management

Green infrastructure and low impact development

• Use natural systems and processes to manage stormwater runoff and reduce pollutant loads
• Examples include:
  • Green roofs
  • Rain gardens
  • Bioretention cells
  • Constructed wetlands
• Provide multiple benefits, including improved water quality, increased biodiversity, and enhanced community livability

Erosion and sediment control

• Involve measures to prevent soil erosion and reduce sediment transport to water bodies during construction activities
• Examples include:
  • Silt fences
  • Sediment basins
  • Mulching and seeding of exposed soils
  • Stabilization of stream banks and channels

Stormwater management

• Involves the design, construction, and maintenance of systems to collect, convey, and treat stormwater runoff
• Includes both gray infrastructure (pipes, culverts, detention basins) and green infrastructure (bioswales, rain gardens, permeable pavement)
• Requires the development of stormwater management plans and the implementation of BMPs to meet water quality standards

Industrial pretreatment programs

• Require industries to treat their wastewater before discharging it to public sewer systems or surface waters
• Set specific limits on pollutant concentrations and loading rates based on the type of industry and the receiving water body
• Include regular monitoring, reporting, and enforcement provisions to ensure compliance with pretreatment standards

Watershed management

• Involves the integrated management of land and water resources within a defined drainage area or catchment
• Requires a holistic approach that considers the interactions among physical, chemical, and biological processes in the watershed
• Aims to balance multiple objectives, including water quality protection, flood control, habitat conservation, and recreation

Watershed delineation and characterization

• Involves the use of topographic maps, GIS data, and field surveys to define the boundaries and characteristics of a watershed
• Includes the identification of major streams, tributaries, and subwatersheds, as well as the mapping of land use, soil types, and other relevant features
• Provides a framework for understanding the sources and pathways of pollutants in the watershed

Watershed planning process

• Involves a systematic approach to identifying water quality problems, setting goals and objectives, and developing strategies and actions to achieve them
• Includes the following steps:
  1. Watershed assessment and characterization
  2. Identification of water quality goals and objectives
  3. Development of management strategies and actions
  4. Implementation of watershed plan
  5. Monitoring and adaptive management

Stakeholder engagement and collaboration

• Involves the active participation of diverse stakeholders, including government agencies, local communities, businesses, and environmental groups, in the watershed planning and management process
• Requires effective communication, outreach, and education to build trust, share knowledge, and foster a sense of shared responsibility for the watershed
• May involve the formation of watershed partnerships, advisory committees, or other collaborative structures to facilitate coordination and decision-making

Watershed restoration and protection plans

• Provide a comprehensive framework for implementing water quality improvement and protection measures in a watershed
• Include specific goals, objectives, and actions for reducing pollutant loads, restoring degraded habitats, and protecting high-quality waters
• Are based on a thorough assessment of watershed conditions, sources of pollution, and management opportunities
• Require regular monitoring and evaluation to track progress and adapt to changing conditions over time

Water quality modeling

• Involves the use of mathematical and statistical tools to simulate the fate and transport of pollutants in water bodies
• Helps predict the impacts of different pollution scenarios and management strategies on water quality
• Provides a basis for setting water quality standards, developing TMDLs, and designing pollution control measures

Types of water quality models

• Include both deterministic (process-based) and statistical (data-driven) models
• Examples of deterministic models:
  • QUAL2K (river and stream water quality model)
  • WASP (Water Quality Analysis Simulation Program)
  • SWMM (Storm Water Management Model)
• Examples of statistical models:
  • Regression models
  • Neural networks
  • Bayesian networks

Model selection and application

• Depends on the specific water quality problem, data availability, and modeling objectives
• Requires a clear understanding of the model's assumptions, limitations, and data requirements
• Involves the selection of appropriate model parameters, boundary conditions, and calibration and validation procedures

Data requirements and limitations

• Vary depending on the type and complexity of the water quality model
• May include data on:
  • Streamflow and hydrologic conditions
  • Pollutant concentrations and loading rates
  • Land use and management practices
  • Meteorological conditions
• Are often limited by data gaps, uncertainties, and variability, which can affect model performance and reliability

Model calibration and validation

• Involve the adjustment of model parameters to match observed water quality data and improve model accuracy
• Require the use of independent data sets for calibration (parameter estimation) and validation (model testing)
• Use statistical measures (goodness-of-fit tests) to evaluate model performance and identify areas for improvement
• Are critical steps in ensuring the credibility and usefulness of water quality models for decision-making

Water quality regulations and policies

• Provide the legal and institutional framework for protecting and restoring water quality at the federal, state, and local levels
• Set standards, criteria, and guidelines for water quality management and pollution control
• Establish roles and responsibilities for government agencies, regulated entities, and other stakeholders in implementing water quality programs

Clean Water Act

• Establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into U.S. waters and setting water quality standards
• Requires states to develop and implement water quality standards, TMDLs, and NPDES permit programs
• Provides funding for water quality monitoring, assessment, and restoration projects through various grant programs

Safe Drinking Water Act

• Sets national health-based standards for drinking water quality and requires regular testing and monitoring of public water systems
• Establishes the Underground Injection Control (UIC) program to protect underground sources of drinking water from contamination
• Provides funding for drinking water infrastructure improvements, source water protection, and public education programs

State and local regulations

• May include additional or more stringent water quality standards, monitoring requirements, and pollution control measures than federal regulations
• Examples include:
  • State-specific water quality criteria and designated uses
  • Local stormwater management ordinances and erosion and sediment control requirements
  • Source water protection plans and wellhead protection programs

Water quality standards and criteria

• Define the desired condition of a water body and set limits on the amount of pollution that can be present without impairment
• Include three key elements:
  1. Designated uses (recreation, aquatic life, drinking water supply, etc.)
  2. Water quality criteria (numeric or narrative) to protect designated uses
  3. Antidegradation policies to maintain and protect existing water quality

Emerging water quality issues

• Represent new or growing challenges to water quality management that require innovative solutions and adaptive strategies
• Are often characterized by scientific uncertainties, complex interactions, and cross-cutting impacts on human and ecosystem health
• Require a proactive and precautionary approach to monitoring, assessment, and management

Contaminants of emerging concern

• Include a wide range of chemicals and microorganisms that are not commonly monitored or regulated but may pose risks to human and ecosystem health
• Examples include:
  • Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs)
  • Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs)
  • Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs)
  • Antibiotic-resistant bacteria and genes
• Require new analytical methods, toxicity testing, and risk assessment approaches to understand their sources, fate, and effects in the environment

Climate change impacts on water quality

• Can exacerbate existing water quality problems and create new challenges for water resource management
• Examples include:
  • Increased water temperatures and reduced dissolved oxygen levels
  • Changes in precipitation patterns and streamflow regimes
  • Increased frequency and severity of extreme events (droughts, floods, wildfires)
  • Saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers and estuaries
• Require the development of climate-resilient water quality standards, monitoring programs, and management strategies

Harmful algal blooms

• Are caused by the rapid growth of certain types of algae that can produce toxins harmful to humans and wildlife
• Are often triggered by excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) from urban and agricultural runoff, as well as changes in water temperature and clarity
• Can have significant economic and ecological impacts, including beach closures, fish kills, and drinking water supply disruptions
• Require a combination of nutrient reduction strategies, monitoring and early warning systems, and public education and outreach efforts to prevent and mitigate their impacts

Microplastics in aquatic environments

• Are small plastic particles (less than 5 mm in size) that can enter water bodies through various pathways, including wastewater discharges, stormwater runoff, and atmospheric deposition
• Can accumulate in the tissues of aquatic organisms and potentially transfer up the food chain to humans
• May act as vectors for other contaminants, such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals
• Require new monitoring and assessment methods, as well as source reduction strategies (e.g., bans on microbeads in personal care products) and improved wastewater treatment technologies to remove microplastics from the environment