🩺Technology and Engineering in Medicine Unit 2 – Human Anatomy and Physiology Basics

Key Anatomical Structures

• Human body organized into systems (skeletal, muscular, nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive, endocrine, integumentary) that work together to maintain homeostasis
• Skeletal system provides structural support, protects vital organs, and enables movement through attachment of muscles
  • Consists of 206 bones in an adult human
  • Bones are living tissues that undergo constant remodeling and repair
• Muscular system responsible for movement, posture, and heat production
  • Includes skeletal muscle (voluntary), smooth muscle (involuntary), and cardiac muscle (heart)
• Nervous system controls and coordinates body functions through electrical and chemical signals
  • Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) integrates information and directs responses
  • Peripheral nervous system (nerves) transmits signals between the CNS and the rest of the body
• Cardiovascular system transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body
  • Heart pumps blood through a network of arteries, capillaries, and veins
• Respiratory system facilitates gas exchange between the atmosphere and the bloodstream
  • Lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system, where oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is expelled

Fundamental Physiological Processes

• Homeostasis maintains stable internal conditions despite changes in the external environment
  • Involves feedback loops (negative and positive) to regulate various physiological parameters (body temperature, blood glucose, pH)
• Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions in the body that convert food into energy and building blocks for growth and repair
  • Catabolism breaks down complex molecules to release energy
  • Anabolism uses energy to construct complex molecules from simpler ones
• Cell signaling allows cells to communicate and coordinate their activities
  • Involves ligands (signaling molecules) binding to receptors on the cell surface or within the cell
• Osmosis is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of high water concentration to a region of low water concentration
  • Plays a crucial role in maintaining fluid balance within cells and tissues
• Diffusion is the passive movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
  • Essential for the transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products across cell membranes

Medical Imaging Technologies

• X-ray imaging uses ionizing radiation to create images of internal structures
  • Conventional X-rays provide a 2D projection of the body
  • Computed tomography (CT) uses X-rays to generate detailed cross-sectional images
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) employs strong magnetic fields and radio waves to visualize soft tissues and organs
  • Provides excellent contrast between different types of tissues without using ionizing radiation
• Ultrasound imaging utilizes high-frequency sound waves to create real-time images of internal structures
  • Commonly used for prenatal imaging, cardiac imaging, and guiding medical procedures
• Nuclear medicine imaging techniques (PET, SPECT) use radioactive tracers to visualize physiological processes and detect abnormalities
  • Positron emission tomography (PET) measures metabolic activity in tissues
  • Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) assesses blood flow and function of organs
• Fluoroscopy is a real-time X-ray imaging technique used to visualize dynamic processes (gastrointestinal tract, cardiovascular system)

Diagnostic Tools and Techniques

• Blood tests analyze various components of the blood (cells, proteins, electrolytes, hormones) to diagnose and monitor diseases
  • Complete blood count (CBC) evaluates red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
  • Metabolic panels assess liver and kidney function, electrolyte balance, and glucose levels
• Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) records the electrical activity of the heart to detect abnormalities in heart rhythm and structure
• Electroencephalography (EEG) measures the electrical activity of the brain to diagnose neurological disorders (epilepsy, sleep disorders)
• Biopsy involves removing a sample of tissue for microscopic examination to diagnose cancer and other diseases
  • Can be performed using a needle (fine-needle aspiration), endoscope (gastrointestinal tract), or surgery (open biopsy)
• Genetic testing analyzes DNA to identify genetic variations associated with inherited disorders or susceptibility to certain diseases
  • Includes karyotyping, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and DNA sequencing

Biomedical Engineering Applications

• Prosthetics and orthotics replace or support missing or impaired body parts
  • Prosthetic limbs restore function and mobility for amputees
  • Orthotic devices (braces, splints) provide support and alignment for injured or deformed body parts
• Implantable devices are designed to be placed inside the body to restore or enhance function
  • Pacemakers regulate heart rhythm in patients with arrhythmias
  • Cochlear implants restore hearing in individuals with severe to profound hearing loss
• Tissue engineering combines cells, scaffolds, and bioactive molecules to create functional tissues and organs
  • Regenerative medicine aims to repair or replace damaged tissues using stem cells and growth factors
• Biomaterials are synthetic or natural materials used in medical devices and implants
  • Must be biocompatible, non-toxic, and able to withstand the physiological environment
• Bioinstrumentation involves the development and application of sensors and devices to measure and monitor physiological parameters
  • Includes wearable devices (fitness trackers, smartwatches) and implantable sensors (continuous glucose monitors)

Emerging Technologies in Healthcare

• Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning are being applied to various aspects of healthcare
  • AI-assisted diagnosis uses algorithms to analyze medical images and patient data to detect diseases
  • AI-powered drug discovery identifies potential new drug candidates and optimizes their development
• Telemedicine enables remote delivery of healthcare services through video conferencing and remote monitoring
  • Improves access to care for patients in underserved areas and reduces the need for in-person visits
• 3D printing creates customized medical devices, prosthetics, and anatomical models
  • Allows for rapid prototyping and personalized treatment options
• Nanomedicine involves the use of nanoscale materials and devices for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases
  • Targeted drug delivery systems use nanoparticles to deliver drugs specifically to diseased cells, minimizing side effects
• Robotics is being integrated into surgical procedures and rehabilitation
  • Robot-assisted surgery enhances precision and dexterity, enabling minimally invasive procedures
  • Rehabilitation robots assist patients with physical therapy and help restore motor function

Ethical Considerations

• Informed consent ensures that patients understand the risks, benefits, and alternatives of medical procedures and treatments
  • Physicians must provide clear and comprehensive information to enable patients to make informed decisions
• Confidentiality and privacy protect patients' personal and medical information from unauthorized access or disclosure
  • Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) establishes standards for the protection of patient data
• Equitable access to healthcare is a fundamental human right
  • Disparities in access to care based on socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, and geography must be addressed
• Ethical considerations in research involve balancing the potential benefits of scientific advancement with the protection of human subjects
  • Institutional review boards (IRBs) oversee research involving human participants to ensure ethical conduct
• Allocation of scarce medical resources (organs for transplantation, intensive care beds) must be based on fair and transparent criteria
  • Ethical frameworks (utilitarianism, egalitarianism) guide decision-making in resource allocation

Practical Applications and Case Studies

• Telemedicine in rural areas connects patients with specialists and improves access to care
  • Example: Remote monitoring of patients with chronic conditions (diabetes, hypertension) reduces hospitalizations and improves outcomes
• 3D-printed prosthetics provide affordable and customizable solutions for amputees
  • Case study: A child born without fingers receives a 3D-printed prosthetic hand, enabling them to grasp objects and perform daily activities
• AI-assisted diagnosis of skin cancer using smartphone apps
  • Example: An app analyzes images of skin lesions and provides a risk assessment, helping to detect melanoma at an early stage
• Robotic exoskeletons assist patients with spinal cord injuries in regaining mobility
  • Case study: A patient paralyzed from the waist down uses a robotic exoskeleton to stand and walk, improving their quality of life and reducing the risk of complications associated with prolonged immobility
• Personalized medicine tailors treatments based on a patient's genetic profile
  • Example: Pharmacogenomics uses genetic information to predict a patient's response to medications, enabling doctors to prescribe the most effective and safe drugs for each individual