10.6 Spread of Islam

The spread of Islam was a pivotal event in ancient Mediterranean history. It began with Muhammad's revelations in 7th century Arabia and quickly expanded into a vast empire. The new faith's monotheistic beliefs and ethical teachings attracted followers across diverse regions.

Islam's rapid expansion reshaped the political and cultural landscape. Muslim rulers established a sophisticated civilization, making advancements in science, mathematics, and the arts. The faith's emphasis on knowledge and learning fostered a golden age of scholarship that preserved and built upon ancient wisdom.

Origins of Islam

• Islam originated in the 7th century CE in the Arabian Peninsula, a region that was largely polytheistic at the time
• The founder of Islam, Muhammad, was born in Mecca around 570 CE and began receiving divine revelations at the age of 40
• These revelations, which Muhammad believed were from the one true God (Allah), formed the basis of the Islamic faith and were later compiled into the Quran

Muhammad's early life

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• Muhammad was born into the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca
• He was orphaned at a young age and was raised by his uncle Abu Talib
• As a young man, Muhammad worked as a merchant and became known for his honesty and integrity (Al-Amin)
• At the age of 25, he married a wealthy widow named Khadijah, who became his first follower and supporter

Revelations from Allah

• At the age of 40, while meditating in a cave on Mount Hira, Muhammad received his first revelation from Allah through the angel Gabriel (Jibril)
• Over the next 23 years, Muhammad continued to receive revelations, which he shared with his followers
• These revelations addressed various aspects of life, including faith, worship, ethics, and social issues
• The revelations were memorized and written down by Muhammad's companions, forming the basis of the Quran

Establishment of Islamic faith

• Muhammad began preaching the message of Islam in Mecca, emphasizing the belief in one God and the importance of moral and ethical behavior
• He faced opposition from the polytheistic Meccans, who saw his teachings as a threat to their religious and economic interests
• In 622 CE, Muhammad and his followers migrated to the nearby city of Medina (Hijrah), marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar
• In Medina, Muhammad established the first Islamic state and continued to receive revelations until his death in 632 CE

Core beliefs of Islam

• Islam is a monotheistic religion that emphasizes the belief in one God (Allah) and the prophethood of Muhammad
• The core beliefs of Islam are summarized in the Six Articles of Faith: belief in Allah, His angels, His books, His prophets, the Day of Judgment, and predestination
• Muslims believe that Islam is the final and complete revelation from Allah, and that Muhammad is the last and greatest of the prophets

Five Pillars of Islam

• The Five Pillars of Islam are the fundamental practices that every Muslim must follow:
  1. Shahada (declaration of faith): "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His messenger"
  2. Salah (prayer): Muslims pray five times a day facing the direction of Mecca (Qibla)
  3. Zakat (charity): Muslims are required to give a portion of their wealth to those in need
  4. Sawm (fasting): Muslims fast from dawn to sunset during the month of Ramadan
  5. Hajj (pilgrimage): Muslims who are able must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime

Concept of Tawhid

• Tawhid is the belief in the oneness and uniqueness of Allah, and is the central concept of Islam
• It emphasizes that Allah is the only creator, sustainer, and ruler of the universe, and that He has no partners or equals
• Tawhid also implies the unity and equality of all human beings before Allah, regardless of their race, ethnicity, or social status
• Any form of worship or devotion directed towards anyone or anything other than Allah is considered shirk (polytheism) and is strictly forbidden in Islam

Importance of Quran and Sunnah

• The Quran is the holy book of Islam, believed to be the literal word of Allah as revealed to Muhammad
• It serves as the primary source of guidance and legislation for Muslims in all aspects of life
• The Sunnah refers to the teachings, practices, and traditions of Muhammad, which are considered the second most important source of Islamic law and guidance
• The Sunnah is derived from the Hadith, which are the recorded sayings and actions of Muhammad, as narrated by his companions and followers
• Together, the Quran and Sunnah form the basis of Islamic law (Sharia) and provide Muslims with a comprehensive framework for living a righteous and fulfilling life

Expansion of Islamic empire

• Following Muhammad's death in 632 CE, the Islamic empire began to expand rapidly under the leadership of the Rightly Guided Caliphs (Rashidun) and later dynasties
• The expansion was driven by a combination of religious zeal, military conquests, and political alliances
• Within a century of Muhammad's death, the Islamic empire had grown to encompass a vast territory stretching from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the borders of China in the east

Conquests under Rashidun Caliphate

• The Rashidun Caliphate (632-661 CE) was led by the first four caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali
• Under their leadership, the Muslim armies conquered the Arabian Peninsula, Levant (Syria, Palestine, and Jordan), Egypt, and parts of North Africa and Persia (Iran)
• The Rashidun Caliphs also established important institutions, such as the Bayt al-mal (public treasury) and the Diwan (administrative system), which helped to consolidate the empire

Umayyad dynasty's territorial gains

• The Umayyad dynasty (661-750 CE) succeeded the Rashidun Caliphate and continued the expansion of the Islamic empire
• Under the Umayyads, Muslim armies conquered the remainder of North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus), and parts of Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent
• The Umayyads also established a centralized government, with Damascus as the capital, and introduced important reforms, such as the use of Arabic as the official language of administration

Abbasid Caliphate's golden age

• The Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 CE) overthrew the Umayyads and shifted the capital to Baghdad
• Under the Abbasids, the Islamic empire reached its cultural and intellectual zenith, known as the Islamic Golden Age
• The Abbasids patronized scholars, artists, and scientists, leading to significant advancements in various fields, such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and literature
• The Abbasid Caliphate also saw the rise of important cities, such as Baghdad, Samarra, and Cordoba, which became centers of learning and cultural exchange

Islamic culture and society

• As the Islamic empire expanded, it absorbed and synthesized elements from the various cultures it encountered, creating a distinct and vibrant Islamic civilization
• Islamic culture and society were characterized by a strong emphasis on learning, innovation, and cultural exchange
• The Islamic world made significant contributions to art, architecture, science, mathematics, and literature, which had a lasting impact on world civilization

Influence on art and architecture

• Islamic art and architecture were characterized by a focus on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and the use of decorative elements, such as arabesque and muqarnas
• The prohibition of depicting human and animal forms in religious contexts led to the development of a unique abstract and stylized art form
• Islamic architecture, exemplified by the Great Mosque of Kairouan (Tunisia), the Alhambra Palace (Spain), and the Taj Mahal (India), combined elements from various cultures and showcased the use of domes, minarets, and intricate ornamentation

Advancements in science and mathematics

• Muslim scholars made significant contributions to various fields of science and mathematics, building upon the knowledge of ancient civilizations, such as the Greeks and Indians
• Notable advancements include:
  • Mathematics: development of algebra, introduction of Arabic numerals, and refinement of trigonometry
  • Astronomy: accurate calculation of the Earth's circumference, development of astrolabes, and creation of detailed star charts
  • Medicine: establishment of hospitals, development of pharmacology, and advancements in surgery and anatomy
  • Optics: study of light and vision, development of the camera obscura, and understanding of the principles of refraction

Role of Islamic scholars

• Islamic scholars played a crucial role in preserving, translating, and expanding upon the knowledge of ancient civilizations
• The House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma) in Baghdad, established by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun, served as a center for the translation of Greek, Persian, and Indian works into Arabic
• Notable Islamic scholars include:
  • Al-Khwarizmi: considered the father of algebra, introduced the concept of algorithms
  • Ibn Sina (Avicenna): wrote the Canon of Medicine, a comprehensive medical encyclopedia that remained a standard text in Europe for centuries
  • Al-Biruni: made significant contributions to astronomy, mathematics, and geography, and conducted comparative studies of different cultures and religions
  • Ibn Khaldun: considered a forerunner of modern sociology, economics, and historiography, and developed the concept of "asabiyyah" (social cohesion) in his work "The Muqaddimah"

Interactions with other religions

• As the Islamic empire expanded, Muslims came into contact with various religious communities, including Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and Hindus
• The Islamic approach to other religions was guided by the Quranic principles of tolerance and the belief in the common Abrahamic origin of monotheistic faiths
• While the nature of these interactions varied depending on the historical and political context, Islamic rule generally allowed for the coexistence of different religious communities

Treatment of non-Muslims

• Non-Muslims living under Islamic rule were granted the status of "dhimmi" (protected people) and were allowed to practice their religion freely in exchange for paying a special tax (jizya)
• Dhimmis were exempt from military service and enjoyed a degree of autonomy in managing their religious and communal affairs
• However, dhimmis were also subject to certain restrictions, such as the prohibition on building new places of worship or publicly displaying their faith
• The treatment of dhimmis varied depending on the ruler and the historical period, with some periods marked by greater tolerance and others by increased persecution

Spread of Islam vs Christianity

• The expansion of Islam and Christianity in the medieval period led to a complex relationship between the two faiths, marked by both conflict and cultural exchange
• The Crusades (1095-1291) were a series of military campaigns launched by European Christians to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim rule, reflecting the religious and political tensions between the two civilizations
• Despite the conflicts, there were also periods of peaceful coexistence and intellectual exchange, particularly in Islamic Spain (Al-Andalus) and Sicily, where Muslims, Christians, and Jews lived and worked together
• The transmission of Greek philosophy and science to Europe through Arabic translations and commentaries played a significant role in the development of medieval European thought and the Renaissance

Influence on Judaism

• The interaction between Islam and Judaism was shaped by their shared Abrahamic roots and the presence of significant Jewish communities in the Islamic world
• Jewish scholars, such as Saadia Gaon and Maimonides, were influenced by Islamic philosophy and theology, and engaged in intellectual exchanges with Muslim scholars
• The development of Jewish law (Halakha) and the codification of the Talmud were also influenced by Islamic legal traditions and practices
• The status of Jews under Islamic rule varied, with periods of tolerance and cultural flourishing alternating with episodes of persecution and forced conversion
• The expulsion of Jews from Islamic Spain in 1492 marked a significant turning point in the history of Jewish-Muslim relations and led to the migration of Sephardic Jews to other parts of the Islamic world, such as the Ottoman Empire

Legacy of Islamic civilization

• The Islamic civilization that emerged from the expansion of the Islamic empire and the cultural and intellectual achievements of the Islamic Golden Age had a profound and lasting impact on world history
• The contributions of Islamic scholars, artists, and scientists to various fields of human knowledge continue to be recognized and celebrated today
• The Islamic world played a crucial role in preserving and transmitting the intellectual heritage of ancient civilizations to medieval Europe, thus influencing the development of Western thought and culture

Lasting impact on world history

• The Islamic empire's political and military expansion reshaped the map of the medieval world and established Islam as a major world religion
• The Islamic civilization served as a bridge between the ancient and modern worlds, facilitating the transmission of knowledge and cultural exchange between different regions and civilizations
• The Islamic world's contributions to science, mathematics, and medicine laid the foundation for later advancements in these fields and influenced the development of European intellectual traditions
• The legacy of Islamic art and architecture can be seen in the enduring influence of Islamic styles and motifs on global artistic traditions

Contributions to human knowledge

• Islamic scholars made significant contributions to various fields of human knowledge, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, chemistry, and philosophy
• The development of algebra, the introduction of Arabic numerals, and the refinement of trigonometry by Muslim mathematicians revolutionized the study of mathematics and facilitated advancements in other fields, such as astronomy and physics
• Muslim astronomers' accurate calculations and observations laid the foundation for the development of modern astronomy and navigation techniques
• The establishment of hospitals, the development of pharmacology, and advancements in surgery and anatomy by Muslim physicians greatly influenced the practice of medicine in the medieval world and beyond
• The works of Muslim philosophers, such as Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Ibn Rushd (Averroes), had a profound impact on medieval European philosophy and helped to preserve and transmit the intellectual heritage of ancient Greece

Islam's continued global presence

• Today, Islam is the second-largest religion in the world, with over 1.8 billion followers spread across various countries and continents
• The Islamic world encompasses a diverse range of cultures, languages, and traditions, reflecting the rich history and adaptability of the Islamic civilization
• The ongoing presence and influence of Islam in contemporary global affairs, as well as the contributions of Muslim communities to various aspects of modern life, demonstrate the enduring legacy of the Islamic civilization
• The challenges faced by Muslim societies in the modern world, such as the reconciliation of Islamic values with the demands of modernity, the promotion of human rights and gender equality, and the countering of extremist interpretations of Islam, reflect the continuing evolution and dynamism of the Islamic tradition
• The study of Islamic history, culture, and civilization remains essential for understanding the complex and interconnected world we live in today, and for fostering mutual understanding and respect among different religious and cultural communities