🌊Ancient Mediterranean World Unit 12 – Ancient Mediterranean's Western Legacy

Key Civilizations and Cultures

• Ancient Egypt developed along the Nile River with a strong centralized government and complex religious beliefs
  • Built impressive pyramids and temples (Great Pyramid of Giza)
  • Hieroglyphic writing system used for record-keeping and religious texts
• Mesopotamian civilizations (Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, Assyria) flourished in the Tigris-Euphrates river valley
  • Invented cuneiform script, one of the earliest writing systems
  • Hammurabi's Code established early legal system and concept of "an eye for an eye"
• Ancient Greece consisted of city-states (Athens, Sparta) with distinct cultures and political systems
  • Athenian democracy laid the foundation for modern democratic principles
  • Sparta known for its militaristic society and powerful army
• Roman civilization began as a small city-state in central Italy and expanded to control the Mediterranean region
  • Developed a republican system of government with elected officials
  • Impressive engineering feats include extensive road networks and aqueducts (Appian Way)
• Phoenicians were skilled seafarers and traders who established colonies throughout the Mediterranean
  • Developed the alphabet, which influenced Greek and Latin scripts
• Persian Empire unified a vast territory under the rule of powerful kings (Cyrus the Great, Darius I)
  • Known for its efficient administration and religious tolerance

Timeline of Major Events

• c. 3100 BCE: Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, Narmer
• c. 2334 BCE: Sargon the Great founds the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia
• c. 1792-1750 BCE: Hammurabi rules Babylon and issues his famous code of laws
• c. 1200 BCE: Trojan War, as described in Homer's Iliad, takes place
• 776 BCE: First recorded Olympic Games held in Ancient Greece
• 509 BCE: Roman Republic established after the overthrow of the last Etruscan king
• 490 BCE: Battle of Marathon - Athenians defeat the Persians
• 323 BCE: Death of Alexander the Great, leading to the division of his empire
• 27 BCE: Octavian becomes Augustus, the first Roman Emperor
• 313 CE: Edict of Milan grants religious tolerance in the Roman Empire, paving the way for the spread of Christianity
• 476 CE: Fall of the Western Roman Empire

Political Structures and Governance

• Mesopotamian city-states were ruled by kings who claimed divine authority
  • Priests held significant power and influenced political decisions
• Ancient Egypt had a centralized government led by a pharaoh believed to be a living god
  • Pharaohs were advised by high-ranking officials and priests
  • Bureaucracy managed tax collection, irrigation projects, and distribution of resources
• Greek city-states developed various political systems
  • Athens pioneered direct democracy where citizens participated in decision-making
  • Sparta had a unique dual kingship and a council of elders (Gerousia)
• The Roman Republic had a complex system of checks and balances
  • Consuls, elected annually, held executive power
  • Senate, composed of aristocrats, advised consuls and controlled finances
  • Tribunes represented the interests of the plebeians (common citizens)
• Persian Empire had a centralized administration with the king at the top
  • Satrapies (provinces) were governed by satraps who reported to the king
  • Royal inspectors (the "eyes and ears of the king") monitored satraps to prevent rebellion

Social Organization and Daily Life

• Mesopotamian society was hierarchical with the king at the top, followed by priests, nobles, and commoners
  • Cuneiform tablets provide insights into daily life, including contracts and personal letters
• Ancient Egyptian society was stratified with the pharaoh at the apex
  • Scribes held high status due to their literacy and role in administration
  • Farmers, artisans, and laborers formed the bulk of the population
• Greek society was patriarchal, with men holding most of the power
  • Women's roles were primarily domestic, although Spartan women had more freedoms
  • Slavery was prevalent, with slaves working in households, mines, and farms
• Roman society was divided into patricians (aristocrats) and plebeians (common citizens)
  • Family was the basic unit of society, with the paterfamilias (male head of household) holding authority
  • Education was valued, with wealthy families hiring tutors for their children
• Persian society was diverse, with various ethnic groups and religions
  • Zoroastrianism was the dominant religion, emphasizing the struggle between good and evil
  • Agriculture and trade were important aspects of daily life

Art, Architecture, and Material Culture

• Ancient Egyptian art and architecture were characterized by monumentality and religious symbolism
  • Pyramids served as tombs for pharaohs and reflected belief in the afterlife
  • Temples were adorned with hieroglyphs, reliefs, and statues of gods and pharaohs
• Mesopotamian art often depicted kings, deities, and mythological creatures
  • Ziggurats, stepped pyramid temples, were the most prominent architectural features
  • Intricate seals were used to stamp clay tablets and served as a form of identification
• Greek art and architecture emphasized harmony, proportion, and idealized human forms
  • Parthenon in Athens is an iconic example of Classical Greek architecture
  • Sculpture reached new heights with works like the Discus Thrower and Venus de Milo
• Roman art and architecture borrowed heavily from Greek styles but also developed unique features
  • Colosseum and Pantheon showcase Roman engineering prowess
  • Realistic portraiture and historical reliefs adorned public spaces and private homes
• Persian art and architecture blended influences from conquered regions
  • Persepolis, the ceremonial capital, featured grand palaces and reliefs depicting the king and his subjects
  • Metalwork, jewelry, and textiles were highly prized and traded along the Silk Roads

Philosophical and Religious Beliefs

• Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, with each city-state having its own patron deity
  • Epic of Gilgamesh explores themes of mortality, friendship, and the search for meaning
• Ancient Egyptian religion centered around the pharaoh's role as a mediator between the gods and the people
  • Osiris, Isis, and Horus were key deities in the mythological cycle of death and rebirth
  • Belief in the afterlife led to elaborate burial practices, including mummification
• Greek philosophy sought to understand the nature of reality, knowledge, and ethics
  • Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were influential thinkers who shaped Western philosophy
  • Stoicism and Epicureanism offered different approaches to living a good life
• Roman religion initially focused on honoring the gods for the well-being of the state
  • Mystery cults, such as Mithraism and the cult of Isis, gained popularity in the later empire
  • Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire, eventually becoming the official religion
• Zoroastrianism, founded by the prophet Zoroaster, was the main religion of the Persian Empire
  • Emphasized the cosmic struggle between Ahura Mazda (good) and Angra Mainyu (evil)
  • Influenced later monotheistic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

Scientific and Technological Advancements

• Mesopotamians made significant contributions to astronomy, mathematics, and medicine
  • Developed a sexagesimal (base-60) number system, which influenced modern timekeeping
  • Created detailed star catalogues and used celestial observations for calendar and agricultural purposes
• Ancient Egyptians excelled in engineering, medicine, and astronomy
  • Built the pyramids using advanced surveying and construction techniques
  • Developed a solar calendar based on the annual flooding of the Nile
  • Made advances in surgery, dentistry, and pharmacology
• Greeks made groundbreaking discoveries in mathematics, astronomy, and natural philosophy
  • Euclid's Elements laid the foundation for geometry
  • Aristarchus proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system
  • Archimedes made contributions to physics, engineering, and invention
• Romans were renowned for their practical applications of technology
  • Constructed extensive road networks, bridges, and aqueducts
  • Developed concrete, which enabled the construction of large-scale structures (Colosseum, Pantheon)
  • Improved agricultural techniques, such as crop rotation and irrigation
• Persians made advancements in agriculture, water management, and architecture
  • Qanat system of underground water channels enabled irrigation in arid regions
  • Yakhchal, ancient refrigerators, used evaporative cooling to store ice and food
  • Windmills harnessed wind power for grinding grain and pumping water

Lasting Influences on Western Civilization

• Greco-Roman culture laid the foundation for Western art, literature, and philosophy
  • Classical Greek and Latin texts continue to be studied and admired
  • Mythological themes and motifs permeate Western art and literature
• Democracy and republicanism, as practiced in Athens and Rome, influenced modern political thought
  • Separation of powers and the idea of citizenship rights trace their origins to these ancient systems
• Roman law and legal principles form the basis of many modern legal systems
  • Concepts such as trial by jury, presumption of innocence, and the right to a fair trial have their roots in Roman law
• Christianity, which spread throughout the Roman Empire, became a major force in shaping Western culture
  • Christian values, ethics, and institutions continue to influence Western societies
  • The Catholic Church played a significant role in preserving knowledge during the Middle Ages
• The alphabet, developed by the Phoenicians and adapted by the Greeks and Romans, is the basis for many modern scripts
  • The Latin alphabet is used by numerous languages worldwide
• Greek and Roman architecture inspired neoclassical styles in the West
  • Greek temples and Roman arches, domes, and columns are echoed in public buildings and monuments
• The legacy of ancient Greek and Roman education, emphasizing rhetoric, logic, and the liberal arts, shaped Western educational systems
  • The trivium (grammar, logic, rhetoric) and quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy) formed the basis of medieval university curricula