9.5 Sculpture and pottery

Ancient Mediterranean sculpture and pottery were crucial art forms that reflected cultural values and technological advancements. From stone carving to bronze casting, artists used various materials and techniques to create works that served religious, political, and everyday purposes.

These art forms evolved over time, showcasing changing styles and innovations. Greek and Roman sculptures and pottery not only decorated public spaces and homes but also conveyed important messages about society, mythology, and daily life, leaving a lasting impact on art history.

Materials and techniques

• Ancient Greek and Roman sculptors and potters utilized a variety of materials and techniques to create their works, each with its own unique properties and challenges
• The choice of material often depended on the intended purpose, location, and budget of the artwork, as well as the artist's skill and preference
• Advances in technology and craftsmanship over time allowed for greater complexity, realism, and expressiveness in sculpture and pottery

Stone carving

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• Marble (Parian, Pentelic) and limestone were the most common stones used for sculpture, valued for their durability, workability, and translucent quality
• Sculptors used a variety of tools (chisels, drills, rasps) to carve the stone, working from rough to fine details
• Techniques such as blocking out, pointing, and polishing were employed to achieve the desired form and finish
• Examples of famous stone sculptures include the Parthenon marbles and the Venus de Milo

Bronze casting

• Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was a popular material for large-scale statues and small figurines due to its strength, malleability, and ability to hold fine details
• The lost-wax casting process involved creating a clay model, covering it in wax, encasing it in a mold, melting out the wax, and pouring in molten bronze
• Hollow casting techniques allowed for lighter, more economical statues, while solid casting was used for smaller objects
• The Riace bronzes and the Capitoline Wolf are notable examples of ancient bronze sculpture

Terracotta modeling

• Terracotta, a type of clay, was widely used for small-scale sculptures, figurines, and architectural decorations due to its availability, ease of shaping, and durability when fired
• Artists modeled the clay by hand or with tools, adding details and textures before firing it in a kiln
• Terracotta sculptures were often painted or glazed to enhance their appearance and protect the surface
• The Tanagra figurines and the Campana reliefs showcase the versatility of terracotta modeling

Painting and polychromy

• Many ancient sculptures and architectural elements were originally painted in bright colors, a practice known as polychromy
• Pigments were applied to the surface of stone, terracotta, or bronze sculptures to create lifelike skin tones, clothing, and other details
• Encaustic painting, which used heated beeswax as a binder, was a common technique for panel paintings and portraits
• The painted decoration on the Siphnian Treasury frieze and the Fayum mummy portraits exemplify the use of color in ancient art

Sculpture types and forms

• Ancient Greek and Roman sculpture encompassed a wide range of types and forms, each serving different purposes and reflecting the evolving styles and tastes of the time
• Sculpture was an integral part of public spaces, religious sanctuaries, and private homes, serving as a means of communication, commemoration, and decoration
• The scale, pose, and attributes of sculptures often conveyed symbolic meanings and cultural values

Freestanding statues

• Freestanding statues, carved in the round, were the most prominent type of sculpture in the ancient world
• They depicted gods, heroes, athletes, rulers, and other important figures in a variety of poses (standing, seated, reclining)
• The contrapposto stance, which created a natural, asymmetrical balance, was a major innovation of the Classical period
• The Doryphoros by Polykleitos and the Augustus of Prima Porta are famous examples of freestanding statues

Reliefs and friezes

• Reliefs are sculptures that project from a flat background, creating a three-dimensional effect
• Low relief (bas-relief) has shallow depth, while high relief (alto-relievo) has more pronounced projection
• Friezes are continuous bands of relief sculpture, often depicting narrative scenes or processions
• The Parthenon frieze and the Ara Pacis reliefs are renowned examples of this type of sculpture

Architectural sculpture

• Sculpture was often integrated into the design of buildings, serving both decorative and structural purposes
• Pediments, the triangular spaces above the entrance of a temple, usually featured mythological scenes or battles
• Metopes, the square panels between the triglyphs on a Doric frieze, often depicted individual scenes or exploits
• Caryatids and atlantes are sculpted female and male figures, respectively, used as supporting columns or pilasters

Funerary monuments

• Funerary monuments, such as tombstones, sarcophagi, and mausoleums, were important forms of sculpture in the ancient world
• They often featured portraits of the deceased, scenes from their life, or mythological themes related to the afterlife
• The stele of Hegeso and the Sarcophagus of the Spouses are notable examples of funerary sculpture
• The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, was an elaborate tomb for a Persian satrap

Votive offerings

• Votive offerings were sculptures dedicated to the gods or heroes in thanks for a favor or in hope of divine intervention
• They ranged from small figurines to life-size statues and could depict the deity, the donor, or the object of the prayer
• Anatomical votives, representing healed body parts, were common in sanctuaries of healing gods like Asclepius
• The Moscophoros (Calf-Bearer) and the Piraeus Athena are examples of votive sculptures found in sacred contexts

Pottery production and styles

• Pottery was a ubiquitous and highly developed art form in ancient Greece and Rome, serving practical, decorative, and ceremonial purposes
• The production of pottery involved a complex process of clay preparation, shaping, decoration, and firing, requiring skilled craftsmanship and artistic vision
• The styles and techniques of pottery evolved over time, reflecting changes in technology, aesthetics, and cultural influences

Ceramic techniques

• Pottery was typically made from clay that was refined, shaped on a wheel or by hand, and fired in a kiln
• Different types of clay and firing temperatures produced various colors and textures, from the warm tones of terracotta to the glossy black of Attic ware
• Potters used tools like ribs, scrapers, and brushes to shape and decorate the vessels
• Techniques such as incision, stamping, and appliqué were used to create texture and relief on the surface

Decorative motifs and imagery

• Ancient Greek and Roman pottery featured a wide range of decorative motifs and imagery, often drawn from mythology, daily life, or abstract patterns
• Common themes included gods and heroes, battle scenes, athletic competitions, symposia, and floral or geometric designs
• The choice of motifs often reflected the function of the vessel, such as Dionysian scenes on drinking cups or funerary scenes on lekythoi
• The François Vase and the Euphronios Krater are famous examples of narrative pottery decoration

Black-figure vs red-figure

• Black-figure and red-figure were the two main techniques of decorating Attic pottery in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE
• In the black-figure style, figures were painted in black silhouette on a red background, with details incised or added in white or purple
• The red-figure style reversed this, leaving the figures in the color of the clay and painting the background black
• The red-figure technique allowed for greater detail, naturalism, and expression in the depiction of human anatomy and drapery

Regional variations

• Different regions of the Greek world developed their own distinct pottery styles and traditions
• Corinthian pottery, characterized by its small, detailed figures and oriental motifs, was influential in the early Archaic period
• East Greek pottery, produced in Ionia and the islands, often featured bold, stylized designs and bright colors
• South Italian and Etruscan pottery adapted and elaborated upon Attic styles, incorporating local tastes and influences

Artistic developments and innovations

• The art of sculpture and pottery in the ancient Mediterranean world underwent significant developments and innovations over the centuries
• These changes reflected evolving cultural values, political and social structures, and artistic tastes, as well as advances in technology and craftsmanship
• Each major period of ancient art contributed its own unique styles, techniques, and masterpieces that continue to inspire and influence artists to this day

Archaic period

• The Archaic period (c. 800-480 BCE) marked the emergence of monumental stone sculpture and the development of distinct regional styles
• Early kouroi and korai, freestanding male and female figures, were characterized by their stiff, frontal poses and archaic smiles
• The Daedalic style, named after the legendary craftsman Daedalus, featured angular, geometric forms and stylized facial features
• The New York Kouros and the Peplos Kore are representative examples of Archaic sculpture

Classical period

• The Classical period (c. 480-323 BCE) witnessed a revolution in the naturalism, idealism, and expressive power of Greek art
• Sculptors like Myron, Phidias, and Praxiteles created figures with fluid poses, anatomical accuracy, and psychological depth
• The High Classical style, epitomized by the sculptures of the Parthenon, achieved a perfect balance of realism and idealism
• The Discobolus of Myron and the Hermes of Praxiteles showcase the innovations of the Classical period

Hellenistic period

• The Hellenistic period (c. 323-31 BCE) saw a shift towards greater emotionalism, individualism, and dramatic effect in sculpture
• Sculptors like Lysippos and the Pergamon school explored new subjects, poses, and scales, often emphasizing movement and pathos
• The Baroque style, characterized by its swirling draperies, exaggerated musculature, and intense expressions, became popular
• The Winged Victory of Samothrace and the Laocoön Group are iconic examples of Hellenistic sculpture

Roman adaptations

• Roman art adapted and built upon the styles and techniques of Greek sculpture, while introducing its own innovations and preferences
• Roman sculptors excelled in portraiture, creating highly individualized and realistic likenesses of emperors, nobles, and ordinary citizens
• The use of different colored marbles, as well as the technique of cutting and assembling sculptures from separate pieces, became more common
• The Augustus of Prima Porta and the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius demonstrate the Roman mastery of portraiture and monumental sculpture

Sociocultural significance

• Sculpture and pottery in the ancient Mediterranean world served important social, cultural, and political functions beyond their purely aesthetic value
• These art forms were deeply embedded in the religious, mythological, and ideological frameworks of ancient societies, reflecting and shaping their beliefs, values, and identities
• The production, display, and use of sculpture and pottery also played a role in the economic, diplomatic, and cultural exchange between different regions and cultures

Religious and mythological themes

• Many sculptures and pottery depicted gods, goddesses, heroes, and mythological scenes, serving as visual embodiments of religious beliefs and narratives
• Cult statues, such as the Athena Parthenos or the Zeus of Olympia, were the focal points of temple worship and ritual
• Votive offerings, such as the Moscophoros or the Piraeus Athena, were dedicated to deities in thanks or supplication
• Mythological scenes on pottery, such as the labors of Herakles or the Trojan War, served as moral exemplars and cultural touchstones

Political and propagandistic uses

• Sculpture and pottery were also used as tools of political propaganda and self-representation by rulers, states, and individuals
• Royal and imperial portraits, such as the Alexander Mosaic or the Augustus of Prima Porta, projected an image of power, authority, and legitimacy
• Triumphal monuments, such as the Arch of Titus or the Column of Trajan, celebrated military victories and imperial achievements
• Pottery with political themes, such as the Eurymedon Vase or the Pronomos Krater, expressed civic pride and identity

Representation of ideals and values

• Sculpture and pottery often embodied the ideals and values of ancient societies, such as beauty, virtue, and masculinity
• The nude male athlete, as seen in the Kritios Boy or the Apoxyomenos, represented the Greek ideal of kalokagathia (beauty and goodness)
• The draped female figure, as in the Peplos Kore or the Caryatids, symbolized modesty, grace, and fertility
• Funerary monuments, like the Stele of Hegeso, expressed the virtues and roles of the deceased and the grief of the living

Reflection of daily life and customs

• Sculpture and pottery also provide valuable insights into the daily life, customs, and material culture of ancient societies
• Genre scenes on pottery, such as schoolrooms, workshops, or banquets, offer glimpses into the activities and spaces of everyday life
• Terracotta figurines, like the Tanagra statuettes, depict ordinary people, animals, and objects with charm and humor
• Reliefs on sarcophagi and grave markers, such as the Tomb of the Haterii, illustrate the occupations, interests, and family relationships of the deceased

Influence and legacy

• The sculpture and pottery of ancient Greece and Rome have had a profound and lasting impact on the art and culture of subsequent periods and regions
• The rediscovery and study of ancient art during the Renaissance and the Enlightenment sparked new waves of classicism and neoclassicism in Europe and beyond
• The styles, techniques, and themes of ancient sculpture and pottery continue to inspire and challenge artists, scholars, and audiences to this day

Impact on later art movements

• The naturalism, idealism, and humanism of ancient Greek art influenced the development of Renaissance art, as seen in the works of Michelangelo and Raphael
• The grandeur, realism, and historical themes of Roman art inspired the Baroque and Neoclassical styles, as in the sculptures of Bernini and Canova
• The abstract, geometric forms of Cycladic art and the expressive distortions of Hellenistic art anticipated modernist movements like Cubism and Expressionism
• The vase paintings of ancient Greece influenced the linear, narrative style of 18th-century Neoclassical art, as in the works of Jacques-Louis David and John Flaxman

Preservation and rediscovery

• Many ancient sculptures and pottery survived through burial, reuse, or collection, often in fragmentary or altered states
• The discovery of ancient sites like Pompeii and Herculaneum in the 18th century unearthed a wealth of well-preserved sculptures, frescoes, and objects
• The removal and transportation of ancient art to museums and private collections, such as the Parthenon marbles or the Euphronios krater, raised issues of cultural heritage and repatriation
• The development of archaeology and art history as academic disciplines in the 19th and 20th centuries led to new methods of excavation, analysis, and interpretation of ancient art

Modern interpretations and scholarship

• Modern scholars and artists have offered new perspectives on the meaning, function, and reception of ancient sculpture and pottery
• Feminist and postcolonial approaches have challenged traditional assumptions about gender, power, and cultural identity in ancient art
• Technical studies have revealed new insights into the materials, techniques, and workshop practices of ancient sculptors and potters
• Digital technologies, such as 3D scanning and virtual reconstruction, have opened up new possibilities for the study, visualization, and dissemination of ancient art