8.5 Chinese painting and calligraphy

Chinese painting and calligraphy have deep roots in ancient China. From Neolithic pottery designs to Bronze Age motifs, these art forms evolved alongside Chinese civilization, shaping its visual culture and artistic expression.

The development of paper, silk, and ink allowed Chinese painting to flourish. Calligraphy's influence on brushwork and composition created a unique aesthetic that blended writing and imagery, reflecting China's rich cultural heritage.

Origins of Chinese painting

• Chinese painting has its roots in the designs and motifs found on Neolithic pottery and Bronze Age decorative arts, which laid the foundation for the development of this art form
• The invention of paper and silk as painting surfaces, along with the brush and ink, provided the necessary tools for Chinese painting to flourish
• Calligraphy, the art of beautiful writing, had a profound influence on the brushwork, composition, and aesthetics of Chinese painting from its earliest stages

Neolithic pottery designs

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• Neolithic pottery in China (c. 6500-1600 BCE) featured geometric patterns, spirals, and stylized animal and human figures painted or carved onto the surface
• These designs demonstrate an early understanding of visual rhythm, balance, and symbolism that would later inform Chinese painting
• Examples of Neolithic pottery with painting include the Yangshao culture's painted ceramics and the Majiayao culture's black and red ware

Bronze Age decorative motifs

• During the Bronze Age (c. 1600-221 BCE), Chinese artisans created intricate decorative patterns on ritual vessels and other objects using techniques such as casting, engraving, and inlay
• These motifs, which included taotie masks, dragons, and abstract patterns, expressed cosmological and religious beliefs and showcased the technical skill of the artisans
• The stylization and symbolism of these Bronze Age motifs would continue to influence Chinese painting in later periods

Influence of calligraphy

• Calligraphy, which developed alongside the Chinese writing system, emphasized the expressive potential of brushstrokes and the beauty of well-balanced compositions
• Painters adopted the tools and techniques of calligraphy, such as the brush and ink, and incorporated calligraphic brushwork into their paintings
• The close relationship between calligraphy and painting in China led to the idea of "calligraphy and painting as one," with many artists excelling in both art forms

Materials and techniques

• Chinese painters traditionally used a range of materials, including silk, paper, brushes, ink, and color pigments, each with its own unique properties and effects
• The choice of materials and techniques allowed for a wide variety of styles and expressions in Chinese painting
• The preparation, mounting, and presentation of Chinese paintings were also important aspects of the art form, reflecting the cultural and social contexts in which they were created and viewed

Silk vs paper

• Silk, a luxurious and durable material, was one of the earliest surfaces used for Chinese painting, particularly during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE)
• Paper, invented in China around the 1st century CE, gradually replaced silk as the primary painting surface due to its greater availability and versatility
• The choice between silk and paper affected the appearance and preservation of paintings, with silk offering a smooth, lustrous surface and paper allowing for more varied textures and absorbency

Brushes and ink

• Chinese painters used brushes made from animal hair, such as rabbit, goat, or wolf, which were soft and flexible enough to create a wide range of brushstrokes
• Ink, made from lampblack or pine soot mixed with glue, was the primary medium for Chinese painting, allowing for a range of tones and effects depending on the amount of water used
• The combination of brush and ink allowed for expressive, calligraphic brushwork that conveyed the artist's emotions and personality

Color pigments

• While ink was the primary medium, Chinese painters also used color pigments derived from minerals, plants, and other natural sources
• Common pigments included azurite blue, malachite green, cinnabar red, and ochre yellow, which were applied in washes or as accents to ink paintings
• The use of color in Chinese painting varied by period and genre, with some styles emphasizing monochromatic ink and others featuring vibrant, opaque colors

Mounting and presentation

• Chinese paintings were often mounted on scrolls, screens, or albums, which allowed for flexible display and storage
• Handscrolls could be viewed section by section, while hanging scrolls were displayed vertically and changed according to the season or occasion
• The mounting process involved backing the painting with paper, attaching it to a flexible support, and adding decorative elements such as silk borders and rollers
• The presentation of Chinese paintings, whether in private collections or public spaces, reflected their cultural and social significance as objects of contemplation and refinement

Styles and genres

• Chinese painting encompasses a wide range of styles and genres that developed over centuries, each with its own distinctive characteristics and subject matter
• These styles and genres reflect the diverse interests, influences, and artistic innovations of Chinese painters throughout history
• Major styles and genres include landscape painting, figure painting, bird-and-flower painting, and literati painting, each with its own conventions, symbolism, and aesthetic principles

Landscape painting

• Landscape painting (shanshui) emerged as a major genre in Chinese art during the Tang dynasty (618-907) and reached its height during the Song dynasty (960-1279)
• Chinese landscape paintings often depicted vast, idealized scenes of mountains, rivers, and mist, conveying a sense of harmony between humans and nature
• Landscape painters used techniques such as perspective, layering, and atmospheric effects to create a sense of depth and immersion in the natural world
• Examples of famous landscape painters include Wang Wei, Fan Kuan, and Guo Xi

Figure painting

• Figure painting, which includes portraits, narratives, and genre scenes, has a long history in Chinese art, dating back to the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE)
• Figure painters sought to capture the inner character and emotions of their subjects through expressive brushwork, posture, and facial features
• Narrative figure paintings often depicted historical, legendary, or religious scenes, such as the lives of the Buddha or the exploits of famous generals
• Notable figure painters include Gu Kaizhi, Wu Daozi, and Chen Hongshou

Bird-and-flower painting

• Bird-and-flower painting (huaniao) focuses on the depiction of birds, flowers, insects, and other natural subjects, often with symbolic or metaphorical meanings
• This genre emphasizes close observation of nature, delicate brushwork, and the use of color to create lifelike, vibrant images
• Bird-and-flower paintings often conveyed auspicious messages or moral lessons, with certain plants and animals representing virtues or seasonal themes
• Famous bird-and-flower painters include Xu Xi, Huang Quan, and Yun Shouping

Literati painting

• Literati painting (wenrenhua) emerged during the Song dynasty (960-1279) as a style associated with scholar-officials who pursued painting as a means of self-expression and cultivation
• Literati painters emphasized personal creativity, spontaneity, and the use of calligraphic brushwork to convey their emotions and ideas
• Literati paintings often featured sparse, abstract compositions with simple subjects such as bamboo, rocks, or orchids, which served as metaphors for the artist's character and values
• Prominent literati painters include Su Shi, Mi Fu, and Ni Zan

Major periods and dynasties

• The development of Chinese painting is closely tied to the major periods and dynasties of Chinese history, each of which saw significant artistic achievements and innovations
• From the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) to the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), Chinese painting evolved in response to changing cultural, political, and social conditions
• Understanding the characteristics and contributions of each period and dynasty is essential for appreciating the richness and diversity of Chinese painting

Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE)

• During the Han dynasty, Chinese painting began to emerge as a distinct art form, with the development of figure painting, portrait painting, and the use of silk as a painting surface
• Han dynasty painters, such as Mao Yanshou and Cao Buxing, created detailed, realistic images of court life, historical events, and mythological scenes
• The Han dynasty also saw the rise of tomb paintings, which depicted the daily life, beliefs, and aspirations of the deceased and their families

Tang dynasty (618-907)

• The Tang dynasty is often considered a golden age of Chinese art, with significant advances in landscape painting, figure painting, and the use of color
• Tang dynasty painters, such as Wu Daozi and Wang Wei, are known for their expressive, dynamic brushwork and their ability to convey a sense of movement and vitality in their paintings
• The Tang dynasty also saw the emergence of the "blue-and-green" style of landscape painting, which used mineral pigments to create vibrant, decorative images of mountains and rivers

Song dynasty (960-1279)

• The Song dynasty is regarded as the peak of Chinese landscape painting, with the development of the monumental, panoramic style of the Northern Song (960-1127) and the more intimate, expressive style of the Southern Song (1127-1279)
• Song dynasty painters, such as Fan Kuan, Guo Xi, and Li Tang, created masterpieces that combined technical skill, poetic sensibility, and philosophical depth
• The Song dynasty also saw the rise of literati painting, which emphasized personal expression, spontaneity, and the integration of painting, calligraphy, and poetry

Yuan dynasty (1271-1368)

• The Yuan dynasty, a period of Mongol rule in China, saw the continuation and further development of literati painting, with artists such as Zhao Mengfu and Ni Zan creating works that exemplified the ideals of the scholar-artist
• Yuan dynasty painters also experimented with new techniques and styles, such as the use of wet, splashed ink to create atmospheric effects and the incorporation of calligraphic elements into their paintings
• The Yuan dynasty also saw the emergence of the "Four Masters of the Yuan," a group of painters (Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, Ni Zan, and Wang Meng) who were celebrated for their innovative approaches to landscape painting

Ming dynasty (1368-1644)

• The Ming dynasty saw a revival of earlier painting styles and a renewed interest in technical mastery, with painters such as Shen Zhou and Wen Zhengming creating works that combined the influences of Tang, Song, and Yuan masters
• Ming dynasty painters also developed new genres and styles, such as the "boneless" style of color painting, which used washes of color without outline, and the "eight views" genre, which depicted famous scenic spots in a series of paintings
• The Ming dynasty also saw the rise of professional painting workshops and the increasing commercialization of art, with painters creating works for a growing urban market

Notable artists and works

• Throughout the history of Chinese painting, numerous artists have made significant contributions to the development and evolution of this art form
• These artists, through their technical skill, innovative styles, and profound ideas, have created masterpieces that continue to inspire and influence artists and viewers today
• Examining the lives, works, and legacies of notable artists provides insight into the richness and complexity of Chinese painting

Gu Kaizhi's Admonitions Scroll

• Gu Kaizhi (c. 344-406) was a renowned painter of the Eastern Jin dynasty (317-420) who is credited with establishing the foundations of figure painting in China
• His most famous work, the Admonitions Scroll, is a handscroll painting that illustrates a series of moral precepts for court ladies, using expressive, fluid lines and delicate washes of color
• Although the original scroll by Gu Kaizhi has been lost, later copies and adaptations, such as the one in the British Museum, provide a glimpse into his style and influence on subsequent generations of painters

Wang Wei's landscape paintings

• Wang Wei (699-759) was a Tang dynasty poet, painter, and statesman who is considered one of the founders of the literati painting tradition
• His landscape paintings, which often depicted the mountains and rivers of his native Shanxi province, are known for their poetic atmosphere, subtle brushwork, and innovative use of perspective
• Although no original works by Wang Wei have survived, his style and ideas have been preserved through copies, such as the Wangchuan Villa scroll, and through his influence on later painters, such as Dong Yuan and Juran

Zhao Mengfu's calligraphy and painting

• Zhao Mengfu (1254-1322) was a Yuan dynasty painter, calligrapher, and scholar who is celebrated for his synthesis of past traditions and his influence on the development of literati painting
• His paintings, which ranged from landscapes to horses to bamboo, are known for their elegant, expressive brushwork and their incorporation of calligraphic elements
• Zhao Mengfu's calligraphy, particularly his running script (xingshu), is regarded as a model of balance, fluency, and personal style, and has been widely studied and imitated by later calligraphers

Dong Qichang's theory of Northern vs Southern Schools

• Dong Qichang (1555-1636) was a Ming dynasty painter, calligrapher, and theorist who is known for his classification of Chinese painting into the "Northern" and "Southern" schools
• According to Dong Qichang, the Northern School, represented by artists such as Li Sixun and Li Tang, emphasized technical skill, realistic representation, and the use of color, while the Southern School, represented by artists such as Wang Wei and Mi Fu, emphasized personal expression, abstract forms, and monochromatic ink
• Although Dong Qichang's theory has been critiqued for its simplification of the diversity of Chinese painting, it has had a lasting impact on the understanding and appreciation of this art form, both in China and abroad

Relationship with calligraphy

• Chinese painting and calligraphy have a close and intertwined relationship, with many artists excelling in both art forms and using similar tools, techniques, and aesthetic principles
• The influence of calligraphy on painting can be seen in the emphasis on brushwork, the use of inscriptions and colophons, and the integration of text and image in many Chinese paintings
• Understanding the relationship between painting and calligraphy is essential for appreciating the unique qualities and cultural significance of Chinese art

Shared tools and techniques

• Chinese painters and calligraphers use the same basic tools: brush, ink, paper, and inkstone, each of which requires skill and practice to master
• Both art forms emphasize the control and modulation of the brush to create different types of lines, dots, and washes, ranging from thick and bold to thin and delicate
• Painters and calligraphers also share techniques such as the use of varying ink tones, the creation of texture through layering and stippling, and the incorporation of empty space as an active element in the composition

Calligraphic brushstrokes in painting

• Many Chinese painters, particularly those in the literati tradition, incorporate calligraphic brushstrokes into their paintings, using the same energy, rhythm, and expressiveness as in their calligraphy
• Calligraphic brushstrokes can be used to depict the textures of rocks, the movement of water, the structure of bamboo, or the emotions of the artist, adding a layer of meaning and personality to the painting
• The integration of calligraphic brushstrokes into painting reflects the Chinese ideal of "calligraphy and painting as one," in which both art forms are seen as expressions of the artist's character and cultivation

Inscriptions and colophons on paintings

• Many Chinese paintings feature inscriptions and colophons, which are poems, comments, or seals added by the artist or by later viewers and collectors
• These inscriptions and colophons, often written in calligraphy, provide context, interpretation, and appreciation for the painting, and serve as a record of its transmission and reception over time
• The presence of inscriptions and colophons on a painting reflects the social and cultural dimensions of Chinese art, in which works are seen as objects of shared contemplation, dialogue, and exchange

Symbolism and meaning

• Chinese painting is rich in symbolism and meaning, with many works conveying auspicious messages, philosophical ideas, or social and political commentary through their choice of subject matter, composition, and style
• Understanding the symbolic language of Chinese painting, which draws on a wide range of cultural, literary, and religious references, is essential for appreciating the deeper layers of meaning in these works
• The interpretation of symbolism and meaning in Chinese painting requires an awareness of the cultural context in which the works were created, as well as the personal intentions and circumstances of the artists

Auspicious symbols and motifs

• Chinese paintings often feature auspicious symbols and motifs, such as the dragon (representing power and good fortune), the phoenix (representing beauty and renewal), and the peony (representing wealth and honor)
• Other common auspicious symbols include the crane (longevity), the deer (career success), and the bat (happiness), which are often depicted in combination with other motifs to create multilayered messages of good wishes and blessings
• The use of auspicious symbols in Chinese painting reflects the importance of visual culture in expressing and reinforcing social and cultural values, particularly in the context of gift-giving, celebrations, and decorative arts

Confucian and Daoist themes

• Many Chinese paintings express Confucian and Daoist themes, which are two of the major philosophical and religious traditions that have shaped Chinese culture and society
• Confucian themes in painting often emphasize the importance of moral cultivation, social harmony, and the proper relationship between individuals and society, as seen in works that depict exemplary figures, such as scholars, officials, or filial sons and daughters
• Daoist themes in painting often celebrate the beauty and mystery of nature, the pursuit of spiritual freedom, and the idea of living in harmony with the Dao, as seen in works that depict vast, misty landscapes, wandering sages, or symbolic animals such as cranes and tortoises

Political and social commentary

• Chinese painters have often used their works to express political and social commentary, whether through subtle allusions, satirical images, or direct criticism of contemporary events and figures
• For example, during the Song dynasty, some painters used the genre of "wind and snow" landscapes to express their feelings of alienation