4.2 Fortified settlements

Fortified settlements in Southeast Asia evolved as complex defensive structures, reflecting societal advancements and regional challenges. These settlements played crucial roles in shaping political landscapes and cultural development across the region.

Understanding different types of fortified settlements provides insights into ancient Southeast Asian urban planning and military strategies. From hillforts and citadels to moated sites and walled cities, these structures showcase the ingenuity of ancient builders and the importance of defense in early societies.

Types of fortified settlements

• Fortified settlements in Southeast Asia evolved as complex defensive structures reflecting societal advancements and regional challenges
• These settlements played crucial roles in shaping political landscapes and cultural development across the region
• Understanding different types of fortified settlements provides insights into ancient Southeast Asian urban planning and military strategies

Hillforts and citadels

Top images from around the web for Hillforts and citadels

• 

  2009-09-03 09-07 Siem Reap 028 Phnom Bakheng | Allie_Caulfield | Flickr View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Phnom Bakheng | Looking back towards the entryway, from the … | Flickr View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Phnom Bakheng | Phnom Bakheng | Jason Eppink | Flickr View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  2009-09-03 09-07 Siem Reap 028 Phnom Bakheng | Allie_Caulfield | Flickr View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Phnom Bakheng | Looking back towards the entryway, from the … | Flickr View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for Hillforts and citadels

• 

  2009-09-03 09-07 Siem Reap 028 Phnom Bakheng | Allie_Caulfield | Flickr View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Phnom Bakheng | Looking back towards the entryway, from the … | Flickr View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Phnom Bakheng | Phnom Bakheng | Jason Eppink | Flickr View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  2009-09-03 09-07 Siem Reap 028 Phnom Bakheng | Allie_Caulfield | Flickr View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Phnom Bakheng | Looking back towards the entryway, from the … | Flickr View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• Elevated defensive structures built on natural or artificial hills
• Utilized topography for strategic advantage and improved visibility
• Often featured multiple layers of fortifications (walls, ditches, ramparts)
• Served as refuges for local populations during times of conflict
• Examples include Phnom Bakheng in Cambodia and Bukit Seguntang in Indonesia

Moated sites

• Settlements surrounded by artificial or natural water-filled ditches
• Moats served dual purposes of defense and water management
• Often circular or rectangular in shape, with varying depths and widths
• Provided protection against invaders and wild animals
• Notable examples include Noen U-Loke in Thailand and Co Loa in Vietnam

Walled cities

• Large-scale urban centers enclosed by massive defensive walls
• Walls constructed using a variety of materials (stone, brick, earth)
• Featured multiple gates for controlled access and trade
• Incorporated complex internal layouts with distinct zones for different functions
• Angkor Thom in Cambodia represents a prime example of a walled city in Southeast Asia

Construction techniques

Earthworks and ramparts

• Involved the manipulation of soil and natural terrain to create defensive barriers
• Techniques included digging, mounding, and compacting earth
• Often reinforced with wooden structures or stone facings for added stability
• Ramparts could reach significant heights, providing elevated positions for defenders
• Examples include the earthen walls of My Son in Vietnam

Stone fortifications

• Utilized locally available stone materials for construction
• Techniques ranged from dry stone walling to mortared masonry
• Often featured interlocking stone blocks for increased strength
• Incorporated defensive features like crenellations and arrow loops
• The Preah Vihear temple complex in Cambodia showcases impressive stone fortifications

Wooden palisades

• Consisted of closely spaced wooden stakes or logs forming a defensive barrier
• Often used in combination with earthworks or as temporary fortifications
• Provided a quick and relatively easy-to-construct defensive solution
• Could be reinforced with additional features like watchtowers or fighting platforms
• Evidence of wooden palisades found at sites like Ban Non Wat in Thailand

Functions and purposes

Defense and protection

• Primary function involved safeguarding inhabitants from external threats
• Fortifications designed to withstand sieges and deter potential attackers
• Incorporated multiple layers of defense (walls, moats, gates) for enhanced security
• Served as refuges for surrounding populations during times of conflict
• Examples include the defensive walls of Ayutthaya in Thailand

Political centers

• Fortified settlements often served as seats of power for ruling elites
• Contained administrative buildings, palaces, and religious structures
• Symbolized the authority and prestige of the ruling class
• Facilitated centralized control over surrounding territories
• The citadel of Thang Long in Vietnam exemplifies a fortified political center

Trade and economic hubs

• Many fortified settlements developed into important commercial centers
• Controlled access points for trade routes and river systems
• Featured marketplaces, storage facilities, and artisan workshops
• Attracted merchants and fostered economic growth in the region
• Kedah Tua in Malaysia functioned as a significant fortified trade hub

Notable examples

Angkor Thom in Cambodia

• Massive walled city built in the late 12th century by King Jayavarman VII
• Covered an area of approximately 9 square kilometers
• Featured a complex system of moats, walls, and gates
• Contained numerous temples, including the famous Bayon at its center
• Served as the capital of the Khmer Empire during its zenith

Co Loa in Vietnam

• Ancient citadel located near present-day Hanoi
• Constructed in the 3rd century BCE during the Au Lac period
• Featured a unique spiral-shaped layout with multiple ramparts and moats
• Covered an area of approximately 600 hectares at its peak
• Played a significant role in early Vietnamese history and mythology

Kedah Tua in Malaysia

• Ancient fortified settlement in the Bujang Valley
• Flourished as an important entrepôt from the 5th to 14th centuries CE
• Featured a combination of earthworks, stone structures, and wooden fortifications
• Controlled trade routes between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea
• Excavations have revealed evidence of Hindu-Buddhist influences and international trade

Chronological development

Neolithic fortified villages

• Emerged during the transition to sedentary agricultural societies
• Simple defensive structures using earthworks and wooden palisades
• Often located on elevated ground or near water sources for natural protection
• Primarily focused on protecting food stores and livestock
• Examples include early settlements in the Red River Delta of Vietnam

Iron Age defensive structures

• Coincided with advancements in metalworking and warfare technologies
• Saw the development of more complex fortification systems
• Incorporated stone and brick in addition to earth and wood
• Reflected increasing social complexity and resource competition
• Sites like Non Muang Kao in Thailand showcase Iron Age fortifications

Classical period urban fortifications

• Characterized by large-scale, sophisticated defensive systems
• Integrated multiple layers of defense (walls, moats, citadels)
• Reflected the emergence of centralized states and empires
• Often incorporated symbolic and aesthetic elements in addition to defensive functions
• Angkor Thom represents the pinnacle of classical period urban fortifications in Southeast Asia

Social implications

Population concentration

• Fortified settlements encouraged the aggregation of people within defined areas
• Led to increased population densities and urban development
• Facilitated the sharing of resources and specialized labor
• Promoted cultural exchange and the spread of ideas
• Resulted in the growth of urban centers like Bagan in Myanmar

Social stratification

• Fortified settlements often reinforced existing social hierarchies
• Elites typically occupied central or elevated areas within the fortifications
• Different social classes were often segregated into distinct zones
• Access to certain areas within the settlement might be restricted based on status
• The layout of Angkor Thom reflects clear social stratification in its urban planning

Labor organization

• Construction and maintenance of fortifications required coordinated effort
• Mobilized large workforces for building and repairing defensive structures
• Led to the development of specialized roles (engineers, masons, laborers)
• Reflected the ability of rulers to command significant human resources
• The scale of fortifications at sites like Angkor demonstrates sophisticated labor organization

Defensive features

Moats and water management

• Artificial or natural water-filled ditches surrounding settlements
• Served both defensive and practical purposes (irrigation, flood control)
• Often integrated with broader hydraulic systems in the landscape
• Could be quite extensive, with multiple concentric moats in some cases
• The moats of Angkor Thom span 100 meters in width and 12 kilometers in length

Gateways and entrance complexes

• Controlled access points into fortified settlements
• Often elaborately designed with symbolic and defensive elements
• Could include features like drawbridges, portcullises, and guard towers
• Sometimes aligned with astronomical or cosmological principles
• The five monumental gates of Angkor Thom exemplify complex entrance architecture

Watchtowers and bastions

• Elevated structures providing vantage points for surveillance and defense
• Typically positioned at strategic locations along walls or at corners
• Allowed defenders to spot approaching threats from a distance
• Often served as platforms for archers or other defensive weaponry
• The Prasat Suor Prat towers at Angkor Thom may have functioned as watchtowers

Archaeological evidence

Structural remains

• Physical remnants of walls, foundations, and other defensive features
• Provide insights into construction techniques and materials used
• Can reveal multiple phases of construction and modification over time
• Often the most visible evidence of ancient fortified settlements
• Examples include the well-preserved walls of Angkor Thom and Co Loa

Artifact distributions

• Patterns of artifact concentrations within and around fortified areas
• Can indicate functional zones, activity areas, and social stratification
• Military artifacts (weapons, armor) provide evidence of defensive functions
• Trade goods suggest economic roles of fortified settlements
• Ceramic distributions at Kedah Tua reveal patterns of trade and social organization

Geophysical surveys

• Non-invasive techniques to detect subsurface features without excavation
• Methods include ground-penetrating radar, magnetometry, and resistivity surveys
• Reveal hidden structures, buried walls, and other archaeological features
• Particularly useful for mapping large-scale fortification systems
• Geophysical surveys at Angkor have revealed extensive hydraulic systems associated with fortifications

Regional variations

Mainland vs island Southeast Asia

• Mainland fortifications often larger in scale due to available land and resources
• Island fortifications more frequently incorporated natural coastal defenses
• Mainland sites show greater influence from Indian and Chinese traditions
• Island fortifications reflect maritime trade influences and local adaptations
• Comparison of Angkor Thom (mainland) with Srivijaya sites (island) illustrates these differences

Coastal vs inland fortifications

• Coastal fortifications often designed to protect harbors and control maritime trade
• Inland fortifications more focused on controlling land-based routes and resources
• Coastal sites show greater evidence of international trade connections
• Inland fortifications often integrated with broader landscape management systems
• Melaka (coastal) and Ayutthaya (inland) demonstrate contrasting fortification strategies

Decline and abandonment

Changing warfare tactics

• Introduction of gunpowder weapons rendered some traditional fortifications obsolete
• Shift towards mobile warfare strategies in some regions
• Adaptation of fortification designs to counter new threats
• Some sites modified existing fortifications, while others were abandoned
• The fortifications of Ayutthaya were modified in response to Portuguese artillery

Shifts in political power

• Collapse of centralized states led to abandonment of some fortified capitals
• Rise of new political centers resulted in the construction of new fortifications
• Some fortified sites repurposed or occupied by different political entities
• Changing trade routes impacted the strategic importance of certain fortified settlements
• The decline of Angkor led to the abandonment of its extensive fortification system

Environmental factors

• Climate change and environmental degradation affected the sustainability of some fortified settlements
• Water management issues led to the abandonment of certain hydraulic-based fortifications
• Natural disasters (earthquakes, floods) damaged or destroyed some fortified structures
• Deforestation and resource depletion impacted the ability to maintain large-scale fortifications
• Environmental stress may have contributed to the decline of water-dependent fortified sites like Angkor

Modern archaeological approaches

Remote sensing techniques

• Utilization of satellite imagery and LiDAR technology to map large-scale fortification systems
• Allows for the discovery of previously unknown sites and features
• Provides comprehensive views of fortified settlements in their landscape context
• Particularly useful in densely forested or inaccessible areas
• LiDAR surveys have revealed extensive fortification networks around Angkor

Excavation strategies

• Targeted excavations to investigate specific elements of fortification systems
• Use of stratigraphic analysis to understand construction phases and modifications
• Careful documentation of construction techniques and materials
• Integration of scientific dating methods to establish chronologies
• Excavations at Co Loa have revealed multiple phases of fortification construction

Interdisciplinary studies

• Collaboration between archaeologists, historians, geologists, and other specialists
• Integration of textual sources, epigraphy, and archaeological evidence
• Use of paleoenvironmental data to understand the context of fortified settlements
• Application of materials science techniques to analyze construction materials
• Studies at Kedah Tua combine archaeological, historical, and geological approaches to understand its development