4.1 Nationalism and national identity

Nationalism emerged as a powerful force shaping modern political and cultural identities in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It profoundly influenced the development of nation-states and continues to shape global politics today.

The concept of nationalism emphasizes shared language, culture, history, and territorial claims. It manifests in various forms, from civic to ethnic nationalism, and has played a crucial role in unification movements, decolonization, and ongoing debates about national identity.

Origins of nationalism

• Nationalism emerged as a powerful force shaping modern political and cultural identities during the late 18th and early 19th centuries
• The concept of nationalism profoundly influenced the development of nation-states and continues to shape global politics in the modern era

Enlightenment and French Revolution

Top images from around the web for Enlightenment and French Revolution

• 

  پرونده:Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789w.jpg - مشروطه View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  History of human rights - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  پرونده:Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789w.jpg - مشروطه View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  History of human rights - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 2

Top images from around the web for Enlightenment and French Revolution

• 

  پرونده:Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789w.jpg - مشروطه View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  History of human rights - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  پرونده:Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789w.jpg - مشروطه View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  History of human rights - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 2

• Enlightenment ideas of popular sovereignty and individual rights fueled nationalist sentiments
• French Revolution (1789) promoted concepts of citizenship and national identity
• Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen articulated principles of national self-determination
• Napoleonic Wars spread nationalist ideals across Europe

Romantic movement influence

• Romanticist emphasis on emotion, nature, and individual expression bolstered nationalist sentiments
• Celebration of folk culture and traditions fostered sense of national uniqueness
• Romantic literature and art glorified national histories and myths (Brothers Grimm fairy tales)
• Concept of "national genius" promoted idea of distinct national characters

Industrial Revolution impact

• Urbanization and improved communication facilitated spread of nationalist ideas
• Print media and mass literacy contributed to formation of "imagined communities"
• Economic changes created new social classes invested in national identities
• Standardization of language and education systems reinforced national cohesion

Characteristics of nationalism

• Nationalism emphasizes the primacy of national identity over other forms of collective belonging
• The modern period saw nationalism become a dominant ideology shaping political and social structures

Shared language and culture

• Common language viewed as essential for national unity and communication
• Standardization of national languages through education and media
• Cultural practices and traditions seen as expressions of national character
• Promotion of national literature, art, and music to reinforce cultural identity
• Language revival movements in some nations (Hebrew in Israel)

Common history and traditions

• Shared historical narratives create sense of collective destiny
• National myths and origin stories foster unity and pride
• Commemoration of key historical events through holidays and monuments
• Emphasis on continuity between past and present to legitimize national claims
• Reinterpretation of history to support nationalist agendas (Manifest Destiny in the United States)

Territorial claims

• Concept of "homeland" or "fatherland" central to nationalist ideologies
• Irredentism seeks to incorporate territories with co-ethnic populations
• Natural borders (rivers, mountains) often used to justify territorial claims
• Sacred sites and historical landmarks reinforce connection to land
• Disputes over contested territories fuel nationalist conflicts (Kashmir between India and Pakistan)

Types of nationalism

• Nationalism manifests in various forms depending on historical, cultural, and political contexts
• Different types of nationalism emerged during the modern period, shaping state formation and international relations

Civic vs ethnic nationalism

• Civic nationalism bases national identity on shared citizenship and political values
• Emphasizes voluntary participation and adherence to common laws and institutions
• Ethnic nationalism defines nation through common ancestry, language, and culture
• Stresses importance of ethnic homogeneity and exclusivity
• France exemplifies civic nationalism, while Germany historically leaned towards ethnic nationalism

Liberal vs integral nationalism

• Liberal nationalism promotes individual rights, constitutionalism, and limited government
• Supports national self-determination and international cooperation
• Integral nationalism prioritizes collective interests over individual rights
• Advocates for strong, centralized state and often xenophobic policies
• 19th century Italian unification movement embodied liberal nationalism, while fascist Italy represented integral nationalism

State-building nationalism

• Aims to create or strengthen a centralized state apparatus
• Promotes national unity through standardized education and bureaucracy
• Encourages development of national infrastructure and economy
• Often involves suppression of regional or minority identities
• Meiji Restoration in Japan exemplified state-building nationalism

Nationalism and nation-states

• The modern period witnessed the rise of the nation-state as the dominant form of political organization
• Nationalism played a crucial role in shaping the formation and legitimacy of nation-states

Unification movements

• Nationalist ideologies drove movements to unite fragmented political entities
• Italian Risorgimento led to unification of Italy in 1861
• German unification achieved under Prussian leadership in 1871
• Unification often involved military conquest and diplomatic maneuvering
• Cultural and linguistic standardization followed political unification

National self-determination

• Principle that nations have the right to form their own sovereign states
• Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points promoted national self-determination after World War I
• Led to creation of new states in Central and Eastern Europe after 1918
• Continues to influence separatist movements and international politics
• Challenges arise when multiple ethnic groups claim the same territory

Decolonization and nationalism

• Anti-colonial nationalism emerged in response to European imperialism
• National liberation movements sought independence from colonial rule
• Decolonization process reshaped global political map in mid-20th century
• Newly independent states often faced challenges of nation-building
• Pan-African and Pan-Arab movements sought unity among former colonies

Symbols of national identity

• National symbols play a crucial role in fostering a sense of shared identity and loyalty
• The modern period saw the proliferation of standardized national symbols across nation-states

Flags and national anthems

• National flags serve as visual representations of sovereign states
• Design elements often incorporate historical or cultural significance
• National anthems express patriotic sentiments and shared values
• Public display and performance of these symbols reinforce national identity
• Some flags become contentious symbols (Confederate flag in the United States)

National myths and heroes

• Founding myths provide origin stories for nations (Romulus and Remus for Rome)
• Historical figures elevated to national hero status (Joan of Arc in France)
• Myths and heroes often idealized or romanticized for nationalist purposes
• Educational curricula and public monuments promote national narratives
• Reinterpretation of historical figures to align with contemporary values

Cultural practices and customs

• Traditional clothing, food, and festivals celebrated as expressions of national identity
• Folk music and dance preserved and promoted as national heritage
• Religious practices often intertwined with national identity (Shintoism in Japan)
• Sports teams and events foster national pride and unity
• Language usage and etiquette reflect national cultural norms

Nationalism in the 19th century

• The 19th century marked the heyday of nationalist movements across the globe
• Nationalism profoundly shaped the political landscape of Europe, the Americas, and parts of Asia

European nationalist movements

• Greek War of Independence (1821-1832) established modern Greek state
• Revolutions of 1848 sparked nationalist uprisings across Europe
• Italian unification (Risorgimento) achieved under Cavour and Garibaldi
• German unification led by Prussia and Otto von Bismarck
• Nationalist movements in multinational empires (Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, Russian)

Latin American independence

• Creole elites led independence movements against Spanish and Portuguese rule
• Simón Bolívar's vision of Gran Colombia inspired pan-Latin American nationalism
• Nation-building challenges emerged after independence (caudillismo)
• Struggle to define national identities distinct from European heritage
• Economic dependence on foreign powers complicated nationalist aspirations

Nationalism in Asia and Africa

• Meiji Restoration in Japan embraced nationalism to resist Western imperialism
• Indian National Congress founded in 1885, advocating for Indian self-rule
• Young Turk movement sought to reform Ottoman Empire along nationalist lines
• Ethiopian resistance to Italian colonization preserved national independence
• Early stirrings of African nationalism (Ethiopianism, Negritude movement)

Nationalism and imperialism

• The modern period witnessed complex interactions between nationalism and imperialism
• Nationalist ideologies both fueled and resisted imperial expansion

Colonialism and national identity

• European powers justified colonialism through nationalist and racial ideologies
• Colonial administrations often reinforced or created new ethnic divisions
• Colonized peoples developed national identities in response to foreign rule
• Diaspora communities maintained connections to ancestral homelands
• Legacy of colonialism continues to shape postcolonial national identities

Nationalism as resistance

• Anti-colonial nationalism emerged as a response to imperial domination
• National liberation movements sought independence from colonial powers
• Use of indigenous languages and cultural practices as forms of resistance
• Development of nationalist historiographies challenging colonial narratives
• Pan-African and Pan-Asian movements promoted solidarity among colonized peoples

Competing nationalisms

• Rival nationalist claims often led to conflicts within and between empires
• Balkan nationalism destabilized Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires
• Irish nationalism challenged British rule in Ireland
• Zionist and Arab nationalisms clashed in Palestine
• Competing visions of Indian nationalism (secular vs religious)

Nationalism in the 20th century

• The 20th century saw nationalism reach its zenith as a global political force
• World wars, decolonization, and the Cold War shaped new forms of nationalism

World War I and nationalism

• Nationalist rivalries contributed to outbreak of World War I
• War propaganda intensified nationalist sentiments in belligerent nations
• Collapse of multinational empires led to creation of new nation-states
• Wilson's principle of national self-determination influenced peace settlements
• Treaty of Versailles redrew European borders along national lines

Interwar period nationalism

• Rise of fascism and Nazism represented extreme forms of integral nationalism
• Economic nationalism intensified during Great Depression (autarky policies)
• Nationalist movements gained strength in colonial territories
• Spanish Civil War highlighted conflict between competing nationalist visions
• Appeasement policies failed to contain aggressive nationalist expansionism

Post-World War II nationalism

• Decolonization movements led to creation of numerous new nation-states
• Cold War ideological conflict influenced forms of nationalism worldwide
• Non-Aligned Movement sought to assert national sovereignty in bipolar world
• European integration project challenged traditional nationalist paradigms
• Ethnic nationalism resurged with breakup of Soviet Union and Yugoslavia

Nationalism and ideology

• Nationalism interacted with and influenced various political ideologies during the modern period
• The relationship between nationalism and other ideological currents shaped global politics

Nationalism vs socialism

• Tension between internationalist aims of socialism and nationalist sentiments
• Debates within socialist movements over national question (Marx vs Bauer)
• Some socialists incorporated nationalist elements (Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam)
• Soviet Union's "socialism in one country" vs Trotsky's permanent revolution
• National liberation movements often blended socialist and nationalist ideals

Fascism and extreme nationalism

• Fascism represented an extreme form of integral nationalism
• Emphasis on national rebirth, racial purity, and territorial expansion
• Cult of personality around national leaders (Hitler, Mussolini)
• Use of mass mobilization and propaganda to promote nationalist fervor
• Extreme nationalism led to genocidal policies and world war

Liberal democracy and nationalism

• Liberal nationalism sought to reconcile national sovereignty with individual rights
• Nation-state seen as framework for protecting civil liberties and representation
• Challenges of balancing majority rule with minority rights in diverse societies
• Debates over citizenship and national identity in multicultural democracies
• Tension between nationalism and supranational governance (European Union)

Globalization and nationalism

• The modern period has witnessed increasing tension between globalizing forces and nationalist reactions
• Nationalism continues to evolve in response to global economic and cultural integration

Transnationalism vs nationalism

• Growth of transnational corporations and global supply chains
• Increased international migration challenges traditional notions of national belonging
• Rise of global civil society and international NGOs
• Persistence of national identities alongside emerging global consciousness
• Nationalist backlash against perceived threats to sovereignty from globalization

Economic nationalism

• Protectionist trade policies aimed at safeguarding national industries
• State intervention to promote national champions in key economic sectors
• Debates over national control of strategic resources and infrastructure
• Currency manipulation as tool of economic nationalism
• Tensions between economic interdependence and desires for self-sufficiency

Cultural homogenization vs diversity

• Fears of cultural imperialism and loss of national distinctiveness
• Efforts to preserve and promote national languages and cultural practices
• Commodification of national cultures for global consumption (world music, ethnic cuisines)
• Hybridization of cultural forms challenges notion of pure national cultures
• Multiculturalism policies attempt to balance diversity and national cohesion

Contemporary issues in nationalism

• Nationalism remains a potent force in contemporary global politics
• New challenges and manifestations of nationalism have emerged in the 21st century

Separatist movements

• Ongoing struggles for national self-determination (Catalonia, Scotland)
• Ethnic and regional identities asserting claims to nationhood
• Role of international recognition in legitimizing separatist claims
• Challenges of accommodating minority nationalisms within existing states
• Debates over economic viability of potential new nation-states

Populism and nationalism

• Rise of populist movements often incorporate nationalist rhetoric
• Appeals to nativist sentiments and anti-immigrant policies
• Criticism of globalist elites and international institutions
• Use of social media to promote nationalist messages and mobilize support
• Challenges to liberal democratic norms in name of national sovereignty

Nationalism in a digital age

• Social media facilitates spread of nationalist ideas and organization
• Online disinformation campaigns exploit nationalist sentiments
• Cyber-nationalism and conflicts in virtual spaces (Chinese "50 Cent Army")
• Digital technologies enable diaspora communities to maintain national ties
• Debates over data sovereignty and control of internet infrastructure

Critiques of nationalism

• The modern period has seen various critiques of nationalism emerge
• Scholars and activists have questioned the assumptions and consequences of nationalist ideologies

Nationalism and conflict

• Nationalist rivalries contribute to international tensions and wars
• Exclusionary forms of nationalism lead to discrimination and violence
• Irredentist claims and border disputes fuel ongoing conflicts
• Nationalist historiographies often perpetuate cycles of grievance
• Challenges of reconciling national narratives in post-conflict societies

Exclusionary aspects

• Ethnic nationalism marginalizes minority groups within nation-states
• Gendered nature of nationalist ideologies often reinforces patriarchal structures
• Nationalism can justify suppression of individual rights for collective good
• Assimilationist policies threaten cultural diversity within nations
• Exclusionary citizenship laws based on ethnic or religious criteria

Alternatives to nationalism

• Cosmopolitanism promotes global citizenship and universal values
• Regionalism seeks to balance national interests with supranational cooperation
• Post-national theories challenge primacy of nation-state model
• Indigenous rights movements assert alternative forms of collective identity
• Intersectional approaches emphasize multiple, overlapping identities beyond nation