6.7 Periodic table and chemical elements

The periodic table, a cornerstone of modern chemistry, organizes elements based on their atomic structure and properties. It reflects the development of atomic theory and quantum mechanics, providing a framework for understanding element relationships and predicting chemical behavior.

Element classification within the periodic table categorizes substances based on their physical and chemical properties. This system reflects the diversity of matter in the universe, offering insights into element reactivity and compound formation. The classification helps scientists understand and predict how elements interact and behave in various contexts.

Structure of periodic table

• Organizes chemical elements based on atomic structure and properties
• Fundamental tool in chemistry for understanding element relationships and predicting chemical behavior
• Reflects the development of atomic theory and quantum mechanics in the modern period

Periods and groups

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• Horizontal rows called periods represent electron shells
• Vertical columns called groups share similar chemical properties
• Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons
• Period number corresponds to the highest occupied electron shell
• Group number indicates the number of valence electrons (main group elements)

Electron configuration patterns

• Describes arrangement of electrons in atomic orbitals
• Follows Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule
• Determines element's position in the periodic table
• Electron configurations follow a predictable pattern across periods
• Anomalies exist due to stability of half-filled or fully filled subshells (chromium, copper)

Trends across periods

• Atomic radius generally decreases from left to right
• Ionization energy increases from left to right
• Electronegativity increases from left to right
• Metallic character decreases from left to right
• Nonmetallic character increases from left to right

Element classification

• Categorizes elements based on physical and chemical properties
• Reflects the diversity of matter and its behavior in the universe
• Provides insights into element reactivity and compound formation

Metals vs nonmetals

• Metals conduct electricity and heat, ductile, malleable, lustrous
• Nonmetals poor conductors, brittle, dull, often exist as gases or liquids
• Metalloids exhibit properties of both metals and nonmetals (silicon, germanium)
• Metals typically lose electrons in reactions, nonmetals gain electrons
• Transition from metallic to nonmetallic properties occurs across periods

Transition elements

• Located in d-block of the periodic table
• Exhibit variable oxidation states due to partially filled d-orbitals
• Often form colored compounds and act as catalysts
• Have high melting points and form complex ions
• Include technologically important elements (iron, copper, gold)

Noble gases

• Located in Group 18 (formerly Group 0)
• Have full outer electron shells, extremely stable
• Exhibit low reactivity and exist as monatomic gases
• Used in lighting (neon signs) and as inert atmospheres
• Heavier noble gases (krypton, xenon) can form compounds under extreme conditions

Atomic properties

• Fundamental characteristics that define an element's behavior
• Determined by the number and arrangement of subatomic particles
• Crucial for understanding chemical reactions and bonding

Atomic number vs mass number

• Atomic number (Z) equals number of protons in nucleus
• Mass number (A) equals total number of protons and neutrons
• Determines element identity and position in periodic table
• Relationship expressed as: $A = Z + N$ (N = number of neutrons)
• Isotopes have same atomic number but different mass numbers

Isotopes and atomic mass

• Isotopes atoms with same number of protons but different neutrons
• Atomic mass average mass of all isotopes weighted by abundance
• Expressed in atomic mass units (amu) or Daltons
• Calculated using formula: $\text{Atomic mass} = \sum(\text{isotope mass} \times \text{fractional abundance})$
• Important in radioactive dating, nuclear medicine, and mass spectrometry

Electron affinity

• Energy released when neutral atom gains an electron
• Generally increases from left to right across a period
• Halogens have highest electron affinities
• Noble gases have very low (often positive) electron affinities
• Influences an element's tendency to form anions in chemical reactions

Periodic trends

• Patterns in element properties across the periodic table
• Result from changes in atomic structure and electron configuration
• Essential for predicting chemical behavior and reactivity

Atomic radius

• Decreases from left to right across a period
• Increases from top to bottom within a group
• Affected by nuclear charge and electron shielding
• Measured by half the distance between nuclei in a diatomic molecule
• Ionic radii differ from atomic radii due to electron gain or loss

Ionization energy

• Energy required to remove an electron from a neutral atom
• Increases from left to right across a period
• Decreases from top to bottom within a group
• First ionization energy lower than subsequent ionization energies
• Relates to an element's tendency to form cations in chemical reactions

Electronegativity

• Ability of an atom to attract shared electrons in a chemical bond
• Increases from left to right across a period
• Decreases from top to bottom within a group
• Fluorine most electronegative element, francium least electronegative
• Pauling scale most common measure of electronegativity
• Difference in electronegativity determines bond polarity

Chemical bonding

• Process by which atoms combine to form molecules and compounds
• Fundamental to understanding chemical reactions and material properties
• Reflects the modern understanding of atomic structure and quantum mechanics

Ionic vs covalent bonds

• Ionic bonds transfer of electrons between metal and nonmetal
• Covalent bonds sharing of electrons between nonmetals
• Ionic compounds form crystals, high melting points, conduct electricity when molten
• Covalent compounds form molecules, lower melting points, generally poor conductors
• Bond polarity determined by electronegativity difference (ionic > 1.7, covalent < 1.7)

Valence electrons

• Electrons in outermost shell of an atom
• Determine chemical properties and bonding behavior
• Number of valence electrons corresponds to group number for main group elements
• Transition elements can use d-electrons in bonding
• Octet rule aims to achieve noble gas configuration through bonding

Octet rule

• Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve 8 valence electrons
• Based on stability of noble gas electron configurations
• Explains formation of ions and covalent bonds
• Exceptions include elements in periods 1 and 2 (hydrogen, beryllium, boron)
• Expanded octet possible for elements in period 3 and beyond (sulfur, phosphorus)

Element families

• Groups of elements with similar chemical properties
• Share electron configurations in their outermost shells
• Exhibit gradual changes in properties down the group

Alkali metals

• Group 1 elements (lithium, sodium, potassium)
• Highly reactive, soft, low melting points
• One valence electron, readily form +1 ions
• React vigorously with water, producing hydrogen gas
• Stored under oil to prevent reaction with air and moisture

Halogens

• Group 17 elements (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine)
• Highly reactive nonmetals, exist as diatomic molecules
• Seven valence electrons, readily form -1 ions
• Strong oxidizing agents, used in water treatment and as disinfectants
• Reactivity decreases down the group due to increasing atomic size

Rare earth elements

• Lanthanides and actinides, often grouped separately
• Similar chemical properties due to electron configuration
• Important in technology (magnets, lasers, batteries)
• Difficult to separate due to chemical similarity
• Many actinides artificially produced and radioactive

Historical development

• Evolution of the periodic table reflects advancements in scientific understanding
• Demonstrates the collaborative nature of scientific progress
• Illustrates the importance of pattern recognition in scientific discovery

Mendeleev's contributions

• Created first widely accepted periodic table in 1869
• Arranged elements by atomic weight and chemical properties
• Left gaps for undiscovered elements, predicted their properties
• Correct predictions (gallium, germanium, scandium) validated his work
• Prioritized chemical properties over strict atomic weight order

Modern periodic law

• Elements arranged by increasing atomic number, not atomic weight
• Proposed by Henry Moseley in 1913 based on X-ray spectroscopy
• Resolved discrepancies in Mendeleev's table (argon/potassium, tellurium/iodine)
• Explains periodicity of element properties
• Basis for current periodic table structure

Discovery of new elements

• Continuous process expanding the periodic table
• Early discoveries through chemical analysis of minerals
• Modern methods include particle accelerators and nuclear reactions
• Superheavy elements synthesized and confirmed (rutherfordium to oganesson)
• Naming rights given to discovering scientists or institutions

Applications in science

• Periodic table serves as a fundamental tool across scientific disciplines
• Enables prediction and understanding of chemical and physical phenomena
• Drives technological advancements and material innovations

Predicting chemical behavior

• Electron configuration determines reactivity and bonding
• Group trends allow estimation of element properties
• Periodic trends guide predictions of compound formation
• Useful in designing chemical reactions and synthesizing new compounds
• Aids in understanding complex biological and environmental processes

Material science advancements

• Periodic trends inform development of new materials
• Alloy design based on combining properties of different elements
• Semiconductor technology relies on understanding of metalloids
• Rare earth elements crucial for modern electronics and green technologies
• Nanomaterials exploit unique properties of elements at atomic scale

Nuclear chemistry

• Isotopes and radioactive decay understood through periodic table
• Nuclear fission and fusion reactions based on element properties
• Radioisotopes used in medical imaging and cancer treatment
• Nuclear power generation relies on fissile elements (uranium, plutonium)
• Particle accelerators used to create and study superheavy elements

Elemental abundance

• Distribution of elements in various environments
• Reflects cosmic processes and Earth's geological history
• Influences availability and cost of materials for technology and industry

Earth's crust composition

• Oxygen most abundant element by mass (~46%)
• Silicon second most abundant (~28%), forms silicate minerals
• Aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium also common
• Many economically important elements present in trace amounts
• Composition varies between continental and oceanic crust

Cosmic abundance

• Hydrogen and helium most abundant elements in universe
• Formed during Big Bang and in stellar nucleosynthesis
• Heavier elements produced in supernovae and neutron star collisions
• Abundance generally decreases with increasing atomic number
• Explains rarity of heavy elements on Earth and in solar system

Synthetic elements

• Elements not found naturally on Earth, created in laboratories
• All elements beyond uranium (atomic number 92) are synthetic
• Many have very short half-lives, exist only briefly
• Used to study extreme nuclear physics and chemical properties
• Some have practical applications (americium in smoke detectors)

Periodic table variations

• Alternative representations of elemental relationships
• Reflect different aspects of chemical and physical properties
• Demonstrate ongoing refinement of scientific understanding

Extended periodic table

• Theoretical extension beyond currently known elements
• Predicts properties of undiscovered superheavy elements
• Includes hypothetical g-block elements
• Explores limits of nuclear stability and atomic structure
• Challenges traditional concepts of chemical periodicity

Alternative arrangements

• Spiral arrangements emphasize periodicity of properties
• Three-dimensional models show electron shell structure
• Left-step periodic table based on electron configurations
• Pyramidal arrangements group elements by shared characteristics
• Highlight different aspects of elemental relationships than standard table

Long-form vs short-form

• Long-form places lanthanides and actinides in main body of table
• Short-form (standard) separates f-block elements for compactness
• Long-form shows clearer relationships between d-block and f-block
• Short-form more practical for everyday use and printing
• Both forms maintain fundamental periodic relationships