2.1 Classical liberalism

Classical liberalism emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries as a response to political and economic changes. It critiqued absolutist states and mercantilist policies, advocating for individual rights, limited government, and free markets.

This foundational theory emphasized individual freedom, economic interdependence, and international cooperation. Key thinkers like Locke, Smith, and Kant developed ideas that shaped modern liberal approaches to international relations and global politics.

Origins of classical liberalism

• Classical liberalism emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries as a response to the political and economic changes brought about by the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution
• It developed as a critique of the absolutist state and mercantilist economic policies, advocating for individual rights, limited government, and free markets
• Classical liberalism laid the foundation for modern liberal theories of international relations, emphasizing the importance of individual freedom, economic interdependence, and international cooperation

Key thinkers in classical liberalism

John Locke's natural rights

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• Locke argued that individuals have natural rights to life, liberty, and property, which exist independently of government and cannot be taken away without consent
• He believed that the primary purpose of government is to protect these rights and that citizens have the right to revolt against a government that fails to do so
• Locke's ideas about natural rights and the social contract had a significant influence on the development of liberal political thought and the American and French Revolutions

Adam Smith's economic liberalism

• Smith is considered the father of modern economics and a key figure in the development of classical liberal economic thought
• In his seminal work, "The Wealth of Nations," Smith argued that free markets, driven by individual self-interest and competition, would lead to greater prosperity and efficiency than government intervention
• He advocated for the division of labor, free trade, and limited government regulation of the economy, which became core principles of classical liberal economics

Immanuel Kant's perpetual peace

• Kant's essay "Perpetual Peace" is a foundational text in liberal international relations theory
• He argued that lasting peace could be achieved through the spread of republican governments, international law, and free trade among nations
• Kant believed that as more countries adopted liberal principles and became economically interdependent, the likelihood of war would decrease, leading to a "federation of free states" and eventual world peace

Core tenets of classical liberalism

Individual liberty and freedom

• Classical liberalism places a strong emphasis on individual freedom and autonomy, arguing that individuals should be free to pursue their own interests and goals without interference from the state or others
• This includes freedoms such as freedom of speech, religion, and association, as well as economic freedoms like the right to own property and engage in voluntary exchange
• Classical liberals believe that protecting individual liberty is essential for human flourishing and social progress

Limited role of government

• Classical liberalism advocates for a limited government that is primarily responsible for protecting individual rights and maintaining social order
• It opposes excessive government intervention in the economy and society, arguing that it can lead to inefficiency, corruption, and the erosion of individual freedom
• Classical liberals believe that the government should be constrained by the rule of law and a system of checks and balances to prevent abuse of power

Free markets and trade

• Classical liberalism champions free markets and trade as the most efficient and equitable means of allocating resources and promoting economic growth
• It argues that individuals should be free to engage in voluntary exchange and that prices should be determined by supply and demand rather than government regulation
• Classical liberals believe that free trade among nations can promote peace and prosperity by fostering economic interdependence and cultural exchange

Private property rights

• Classical liberalism places a strong emphasis on the protection of private property rights as a foundation for individual liberty and economic prosperity
• It argues that individuals have a natural right to own and control their own property, and that this right should be protected by the government
• Classical liberals believe that secure property rights incentivize investment, innovation, and responsible stewardship of resources

Classical liberalism in international relations

Spread of liberal values globally

• Classical liberal thinkers believed that the spread of liberal values such as individual freedom, democracy, and free markets would lead to greater peace and prosperity among nations
• They argued that as more countries adopted liberal principles, they would become more alike in their values and interests, reducing the likelihood of conflict
• Classical liberals supported the spread of liberal ideas through diplomacy, trade, and cultural exchange, rather than military force or coercion

Rise of international institutions

• Classical liberals advocated for the creation of international institutions and legal frameworks to promote cooperation and resolve disputes among nations
• They believed that institutions such as the League of Nations (and later the United Nations) could provide a forum for peaceful negotiation and collective action to address global challenges
• Classical liberals also supported the development of international law and norms to regulate state behavior and protect individual rights across borders

Promotion of democracy abroad

• Classical liberals believed that the spread of democracy was essential for promoting peace and protecting individual rights in the international system
• They argued that democratic governments were more likely to respect the rights of their citizens and to resolve conflicts peacefully than authoritarian regimes
• Classical liberals supported efforts to promote democracy abroad through diplomacy, foreign aid, and support for civil society organizations

Economic interdependence vs conflict

• Classical liberals believed that increasing economic interdependence among nations would reduce the likelihood of war by raising the costs and lowering the benefits of conflict
• They argued that as countries became more reliant on trade and investment with each other, they would have a greater stake in maintaining peace and stability
• Classical liberals supported free trade agreements and the lowering of trade barriers as a means of promoting economic integration and reducing the risk of conflict

Critiques of classical liberalism

Ignoring power imbalances

• Critics argue that classical liberalism fails to adequately address power imbalances among individuals and states, assuming a level playing field that does not exist in reality
• They argue that the emphasis on individual freedom and limited government can lead to the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few, exacerbating inequality and social conflict
• Critics also argue that classical liberalism's focus on negative rights (freedom from interference) neglects the importance of positive rights (access to resources and opportunities) in promoting social justice

Eurocentrism and colonialism

• Critics argue that classical liberalism is rooted in Eurocentric assumptions and values that have been used to justify colonialism and imperialism
• They point out that many classical liberal thinkers (Locke, Mill) were complicit in or actively supported colonial projects, seeing them as a means of spreading "civilization" and liberal values
• Critics argue that the universalist claims of classical liberalism mask the ways in which it has been used to impose Western norms and interests on non-Western societies

Challenges to state sovereignty

• Critics argue that classical liberalism's emphasis on individual rights and international institutions challenges traditional notions of state sovereignty and can lead to outside interference in domestic affairs
• They point out that the promotion of democracy and human rights abroad can be used as a pretext for military intervention and regime change by powerful states
• Critics also argue that the rise of transnational actors and global governance institutions can undermine the ability of states to control their own economic and social policies

Unequal benefits of free trade

• Critics argue that the benefits of free trade and economic liberalization are often distributed unequally, both within and between countries
• They point out that while free trade can create economic growth and efficiency, it can also lead to job losses, declining wages, and the erosion of social protections for workers
• Critics argue that the rules and institutions governing international trade (WTO, IMF) often favor the interests of wealthy countries and multinational corporations over those of developing countries and local communities

Legacy of classical liberalism

Influence on modern liberalism

• Classical liberalism laid the foundation for modern liberal theories of politics and international relations, which continue to emphasize individual rights, democratic governance, and international cooperation
• However, modern liberals have also sought to address some of the limitations and critiques of classical liberalism, such as the need for greater social welfare provisions and the recognition of group rights and identity politics
• Modern liberal theories (neoliberalism, social liberalism) have adapted classical liberal principles to changing social and economic conditions, while retaining a core commitment to individual freedom and limited government

Foundation for neoliberal ideology

• Classical liberalism's emphasis on free markets, limited government, and individual responsibility has been a major influence on neoliberal economic policies since the 1970s
• Neoliberalism has sought to extend market principles to all areas of social and political life, advocating for privatization, deregulation, and the rollback of the welfare state
• Critics argue that neoliberalism has exacerbated economic inequality, eroded social protections, and undermined democratic accountability, while proponents see it as necessary for economic growth and efficiency

Relevance in contemporary global politics

• Classical liberal ideas continue to shape debates about globalization, trade, human rights, and the role of international institutions in contemporary world politics
• The tensions between national sovereignty and international cooperation, between economic efficiency and social justice, and between individual freedom and collective responsibility that were central to classical liberalism remain relevant today
• As the world becomes more interconnected and complex, the challenge for liberals is to adapt and apply classical liberal principles in ways that address the needs and aspirations of diverse societies while promoting peace, prosperity, and human dignity for all