8.1 Poststructuralism

Poststructuralism challenges traditional views in international relations, questioning fixed meanings and stable structures. It emphasizes the fluidity of language, knowledge, and power, exploring how these shape our understanding of global politics.

Key thinkers like Foucault, Derrida, and Lacan influenced poststructuralism's approach. Their ideas on power, deconstruction, and psychoanalysis offer new ways to analyze international relations, focusing on discourse, identity, and the construction of reality.

Origins of poststructuralism

• Emerged in the late 1960s and 1970s as a response to the perceived limitations of structuralism, which emphasized the underlying structures and systems that shape language, culture, and society
• Poststructuralism challenges the notion of fixed, stable meanings and instead emphasizes the fluidity, ambiguity, and multiplicity of interpretations
• Draws on various philosophical and theoretical influences, including the works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, and Jacques Derrida, to develop a critical approach to language, knowledge, and power in the context of international relations

Key thinkers in poststructuralism

Foucault's power and knowledge

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Top images from around the web for Foucault's power and knowledge

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  cryptonaut-in-exile: Foucault's Biopower, #AmendmentOne, #Secularism, And You View original

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  Foucault’s Discipline & Punish–outline of parts 1 and 3 – You're the Teacher View original

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  Pragmatism, Critical Theory and Post-structuralism | Flickr View original

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  Foucault’s Discipline & Punish–outline of parts 1 and 3 – You're the Teacher View original

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• Michel Foucault's work explores the relationship between power and knowledge, arguing that power is not merely repressive but also productive, shaping the way we understand and construct reality
• Foucault's concept of discourse refers to the ways in which language and knowledge systems create and maintain power relations, enabling certain ways of thinking and acting while marginalizing others
• His genealogical approach involves tracing the historical development of discourses and power relations, revealing their contingent and constructed nature rather than accepting them as natural or inevitable

Derrida's deconstruction

• Jacques Derrida's concept of deconstruction involves critically examining the binary oppositions and hierarchies that structure language and thought, such as presence/absence, speech/writing, and self/other
• Deconstruction aims to reveal the instability and contradictions within these oppositions, showing how the privileged term depends on and is haunted by its marginalized counterpart
• Derrida's work challenges the idea of fixed, stable meanings and emphasizes the endless play of signification, where meaning is always deferred and subject to reinterpretation

Lacan's psychoanalytic theory

• Jacques Lacan's psychoanalytic theory reworks Freudian concepts through the lens of structural linguistics, emphasizing the role of language in the formation of the unconscious and the subject
• Lacan's concept of the mirror stage describes the process by which the infant misrecognizes itself in the mirror, forming an imaginary sense of wholeness and mastery that belies its actual fragmentation and dependence
• His notion of the symbolic order refers to the pre-existing system of language and social norms that the subject must enter, which structures desire and identity in ways that are always incomplete and alienating

Poststructuralist view of language

Rejection of fixed meanings

• Poststructuralism rejects the idea that language has fixed, stable meanings that correspond to an external reality
• Instead, it emphasizes the arbitrariness and conventionality of the relationship between signifiers (words, images) and signifieds (concepts, meanings)
• Meaning is seen as constantly shifting and dependent on context, with no ultimate referent or transcendental signified that could anchor language in a stable, unchanging reality

Language as social construct

• Poststructuralism views language as a social and historical construct, shaped by power relations and cultural practices rather than reflecting a pre-existing, objective reality
• Language is not a neutral medium for expressing thoughts or describing the world, but actively constitutes and shapes our understanding of reality
• The ways in which language is used, valued, and regulated are seen as deeply political, reflecting and reproducing dominant social norms and power structures

Poststructuralist critique of IR theory

Challenge to realist assumptions

• Poststructuralism challenges the realist assumptions that underpin much of traditional IR theory, such as the idea of the state as a unitary, rational actor pursuing its national interests in an anarchic international system
• It questions the taken-for-granted categories and distinctions that structure realist thought, such as the domestic/international divide, the public/private sphere, and the friend/enemy distinction
• Poststructuralism emphasizes the historical and discursive construction of these categories, showing how they are shaped by particular power relations and ways of knowing rather than reflecting an objective, pre-given reality

Questioning of state-centrism

• Poststructuralism problematizes the state-centric focus of much IR theory, which takes the nation-state as the primary unit of analysis and the key actor in international politics
• It draws attention to the ways in which the state is itself a historical and discursive construct, shaped by particular practices of bordering, identity formation, and security
• Poststructuralism explores the role of non-state actors, transnational networks, and alternative forms of political community that challenge the centrality and authority of the nation-state in the international system

Poststructuralist approach to identity

Identity as fluid and discursive

• Poststructuralism views identity not as a fixed, essential property of individuals or groups, but as a fluid, contingent, and discursively constructed phenomenon
• Identity is seen as the product of particular discourses, practices, and power relations that shape how we understand and position ourselves in relation to others
• Poststructuralism emphasizes the multiplicity, instability, and contestability of identities, which are always in process and open to renegotiation and transformation

Performativity of identity

• Drawing on the work of theorists such as Judith Butler, poststructuralism explores the performative dimension of identity, or the ways in which identities are enacted and constituted through repeated practices and performances
• Identity is not seen as a pre-existing essence that is expressed through behavior, but as something that is actively produced and stabilized through the repetition of certain acts, gestures, and discourses
• The performativity of identity highlights its constructed and contingent nature, as well as the possibilities for subversion and resistance through alternative performances and ways of being

Poststructuralism and power relations

Power as productive force

• Poststructuralism challenges the traditional view of power as a repressive force wielded by dominant actors over subordinate ones
• Instead, power is seen as a productive force that circulates throughout the social body, shaping the conditions of possibility for thought, action, and identity
• Power operates not just through overt forms of coercion and violence, but also through the production of knowledge, norms, and desires that regulate and discipline subjects in more subtle and pervasive ways

Resistance and counter-discourses

• Poststructuralism emphasizes the potential for resistance and counter-discourses that challenge dominant power relations and ways of knowing
• Resistance is not seen as a purely oppositional force that stands outside of power, but as a product of the very power relations it contests, operating within the interstices and contradictions of dominant discourses
• Poststructuralism explores the ways in which marginalized or subordinated groups can mobilize alternative discourses and practices to contest and transform the power relations that shape their lives

Poststructuralist analysis of international politics

Deconstruction of security discourses

• Poststructuralism applies the tools of deconstruction to the analysis of security discourses in international politics, revealing their contingent and constructed nature
• It questions the taken-for-granted assumptions and binary oppositions that structure security discourses, such as inside/outside, self/other, and civilization/barbarism
• Poststructuralism shows how security discourses are shaped by particular power relations and ways of knowing, and how they work to legitimize certain forms of violence and exclusion while marginalizing alternative voices and perspectives

Critique of sovereignty and borders

• Poststructuralism problematizes the concept of sovereignty as a natural or self-evident feature of the international system, showing how it is a historical and discursive construct shaped by particular practices of bordering and identity formation
• It explores the ways in which the production and maintenance of borders works to include and exclude certain populations, creating hierarchies of belonging and entitlement that are deeply political
• Poststructuralism highlights the instability and porosity of borders, as well as the ways in which they are constantly transgressed and renegotiated by the flows of people, goods, and ideas in an increasingly globalized world

Poststructuralism vs other IR theories

Contrast with positivist approaches

• Poststructuralism stands in contrast to positivist approaches to IR, which seek to develop scientific, objective knowledge about the world through empirical observation and causal analysis
• It rejects the idea of a neutral, value-free science of IR, emphasizing instead the ways in which knowledge is always situated, partial, and shaped by particular power relations and ways of knowing
• Poststructuralism challenges the epistemological and ontological assumptions of positivism, questioning the possibility of objective truth and the separation of facts from values in the study of international politics

Differences from constructivism

• While both poststructuralism and constructivism emphasize the role of language, norms, and identity in shaping international politics, there are important differences between the two approaches
• Constructivism tends to focus on the ways in which shared ideas and norms constitute the identities and interests of actors, and how these can change over time through processes of social interaction and learning
• Poststructuralism, in contrast, emphasizes the instability and contestability of meaning, the productive nature of power, and the potential for resistance and transformation through the mobilization of alternative discourses and practices

Implications of poststructuralism for IR

Rethinking of key concepts

• Poststructuralism calls for a fundamental rethinking of key concepts in IR, such as the state, sovereignty, security, and power
• It challenges the reification and naturalization of these concepts, showing how they are historically and discursively constructed, and how they work to legitimize certain forms of violence and exclusion
• Poststructuralism opens up space for alternative ways of thinking about and practicing international politics, beyond the narrow confines of state-centric, militarized, and masculinist approaches

New avenues for research

• Poststructuralism suggests new avenues for research in IR, focusing on the role of language, discourse, and identity in shaping international politics
• It encourages the study of marginalized and subaltern voices, exploring how they resist and subvert dominant power relations and ways of knowing
• Poststructuralism also highlights the importance of interdisciplinary approaches, drawing on insights from fields such as cultural studies, critical theory, and postcolonial studies to enrich our understanding of the complex and contested nature of international politics