🥵Thermodynamics Unit 13 – Thermodynamic Cycles and Efficiency

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Thermodynamic cycle: A series of thermodynamic processes that a system undergoes, returning to its initial state
• Heat engine: A device that converts thermal energy into mechanical work by operating in a cyclic process
• Thermal efficiency: The ratio of the net work output to the total heat input in a thermodynamic cycle, expressed as a percentage
• Reversible process: A process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on the surroundings, and the system and surroundings return to their original states
• Irreversible process: A process that cannot be reversed without leaving a trace on the surroundings, and the system and surroundings do not return to their original states
• Isothermal process: A process in which the temperature of the system remains constant
• Adiabatic process: A process in which no heat is exchanged between the system and its surroundings
• Isobaric process: A process that occurs at constant pressure

Types of Thermodynamic Cycles

• Carnot cycle: An idealized thermodynamic cycle consisting of four reversible processes (two isothermal and two adiabatic) that operates between two heat reservoirs
  • Represents the most efficient heat engine possible for a given set of operating temperatures
• Otto cycle: A four-stroke internal combustion engine cycle consisting of isentropic compression, heat addition at constant volume, isentropic expansion, and heat rejection at constant volume
  • Used in spark-ignition engines (gasoline engines)
• Diesel cycle: A four-stroke internal combustion engine cycle consisting of isentropic compression, heat addition at constant pressure, isentropic expansion, and heat rejection at constant volume
  • Used in compression-ignition engines (diesel engines)
• Brayton cycle: A thermodynamic cycle consisting of isentropic compression, heat addition at constant pressure, isentropic expansion, and heat rejection at constant pressure
  • Used in gas turbines and jet engines
• Rankine cycle: A vapor power cycle that converts heat into work using a steam turbine
  • Commonly used in power plants to generate electricity
• Stirling cycle: A closed-cycle regenerative heat engine that operates by cyclic compression and expansion of a working fluid at different temperature levels
  • Known for its high efficiency and quiet operation

Laws of Thermodynamics Review

• First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another
  • Mathematically expressed as $\Delta U = Q - W$, where $\Delta U$ is the change in internal energy, $Q$ is the heat added to the system, and $W$ is the work done by the system
• Second Law of Thermodynamics: The entropy of an isolated system always increases over time
  • Implies that heat flows naturally from a hotter body to a colder body, and work is required to transfer heat from a colder body to a hotter body
• Third Law of Thermodynamics: As the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, its entropy approaches a constant minimum value
  • Implies that it is impossible to reach absolute zero temperature in a finite number of steps
• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other
  • Establishes the concept of temperature and allows for the calibration of thermometers
• Entropy: A measure of the disorder or randomness in a system
  • Increases during irreversible processes and remains constant during reversible processes

Cycle Components and Processes

• Compressor: A device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume
  • Isentropic compression is an idealized process in which no heat is exchanged with the surroundings, and entropy remains constant
• Turbine: A device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into mechanical work
  • Isentropic expansion is an idealized process in which no heat is exchanged with the surroundings, and entropy remains constant
• Heat exchanger: A device that facilitates the transfer of heat between two fluids without mixing them
  • Used for heat addition and heat rejection processes in thermodynamic cycles
• Combustion chamber: A component in internal combustion engines where fuel is burned to release thermal energy
  • Heat addition occurs at constant volume in the Otto cycle and at constant pressure in the Diesel and Brayton cycles
• Condenser: A device that condenses a vapor into a liquid by removing heat
  • Used in the Rankine cycle to reject heat from the working fluid and convert it back into a liquid state
• Boiler: A device that converts a liquid into a vapor by adding heat
  • Used in the Rankine cycle to add heat to the working fluid and convert it into a high-pressure, high-temperature vapor
• Regenerator: A device that transfers heat from the hot exhaust gases to the incoming cold fluid, improving cycle efficiency
  • Used in the Stirling cycle and some advanced gas turbine cycles

Efficiency Calculations

• Thermal efficiency: Calculated as $\eta_{th} = \frac{W_{net}}{Q_{in}}$, where $W_{net}$ is the net work output and $Q_{in}$ is the total heat input
  • Represents the fraction of heat input that is converted into useful work
• Carnot efficiency: The maximum theoretical efficiency achievable by a heat engine operating between two heat reservoirs, calculated as $\eta_{Carnot} = 1 - \frac{T_L}{T_H}$, where $T_L$ is the absolute temperature of the cold reservoir and $T_H$ is the absolute temperature of the hot reservoir
  • Serves as a benchmark for comparing the performance of real heat engines
• Otto cycle efficiency: Depends on the compression ratio ($r$) and the specific heat ratio ($\gamma$) of the working fluid, calculated as $\eta_{Otto} = 1 - \frac{1}{r^{\gamma-1}}$
• Diesel cycle efficiency: Depends on the compression ratio ($r$), the specific heat ratio ($\gamma$), and the cutoff ratio ($\rho$), calculated as $\eta_{Diesel} = 1 - \frac{1}{\gamma(\rho^{\gamma-1}-1)}(\frac{\rho^\gamma-1}{r^{\gamma-1}})$
• Brayton cycle efficiency: Depends on the pressure ratio ($\frac{P_2}{P_1}$) and the specific heat ratio ($\gamma$), calculated as $\eta_{Brayton} = 1 - (\frac{P_1}{P_2})^{\frac{\gamma-1}{\gamma}}$
• Rankine cycle efficiency: Depends on the temperatures and pressures at various points in the cycle, and is typically lower than other cycles due to limitations on the maximum temperature of the working fluid

Real-World Applications

• Power generation: Thermodynamic cycles are used in power plants to generate electricity
  • Coal, natural gas, and nuclear power plants often use the Rankine cycle
  • Gas turbine power plants use the Brayton cycle
• Transportation: Internal combustion engines in vehicles utilize thermodynamic cycles
  • Gasoline engines in cars and light trucks operate on the Otto cycle
  • Diesel engines in heavy-duty vehicles, ships, and trains operate on the Diesel cycle
  • Jet engines in aircraft operate on the Brayton cycle
• Refrigeration and air conditioning: Reverse thermodynamic cycles are used to transfer heat from a colder space to a warmer space
  • Vapor-compression refrigeration cycles are used in refrigerators, freezers, and air conditioners
• Cogeneration: The simultaneous production of electricity and useful heat from a single fuel source
  • Combined heat and power (CHP) systems use the waste heat from a thermodynamic cycle to provide heating or hot water
• Renewable energy: Some renewable energy technologies utilize thermodynamic cycles
  • Concentrated solar power (CSP) plants use the Rankine cycle with solar energy as the heat source
  • Geothermal power plants use the Rankine cycle with geothermal energy as the heat source

Common Challenges and Misconceptions

• Ideal vs. real cycles: Ideal thermodynamic cycles assume reversible processes and perfect components, while real cycles involve irreversibilities and losses
  • Actual efficiencies are always lower than the theoretical maximum due to factors such as friction, heat loss, and component inefficiencies
• Carnot efficiency misconception: The Carnot efficiency is often misunderstood as the maximum efficiency achievable by any heat engine
  • In reality, it represents the maximum efficiency for a specific set of operating temperatures and is not practically achievable due to the requirement of reversible processes
• Confusing heat and temperature: Heat and temperature are often used interchangeably, but they are distinct concepts
  • Heat is a form of energy transfer, while temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance
• Misunderstanding the Second Law of Thermodynamics: The Second Law is sometimes misinterpreted as implying that all processes are irreversible
  • While most real processes are irreversible, the Second Law allows for the existence of reversible processes in ideal situations
• Neglecting the impact of working fluids: The choice of working fluid can significantly affect the performance and efficiency of a thermodynamic cycle
  • Different fluids have varying thermodynamic properties, such as specific heat, boiling point, and critical point, which must be considered when designing a cycle

Practice Problems and Examples

1. A Carnot heat engine operates between a hot reservoir at 500 K and a cold reservoir at 300 K. Calculate the maximum theoretical efficiency of the engine.
   • Solution: $\eta_{Carnot} = 1 - \frac{T_L}{T_H} = 1 - \frac{300 K}{500 K} = 0.4$ or 40%
2. An Otto cycle engine has a compression ratio of 8 and uses a working fluid with a specific heat ratio of 1.4. Determine the thermal efficiency of the engine.
   • Solution: $\eta_{Otto} = 1 - \frac{1}{r^{\gamma-1}} = 1 - \frac{1}{8^{1.4-1}} = 0.565$ or 56.5%
3. A Diesel cycle engine has a compression ratio of 16, a cutoff ratio of 2, and uses a working fluid with a specific heat ratio of 1.4. Calculate the thermal efficiency of the engine.
   • Solution: $\eta_{Diesel} = 1 - \frac{1}{\gamma(\rho^{\gamma-1}-1)}(\frac{\rho^\gamma-1}{r^{\gamma-1}}) = 1 - \frac{1}{1.4(2^{1.4-1}-1)}(\frac{2^{1.4}-1}{16^{1.4-1}}) = 0.606$ or 60.6%
4. A Brayton cycle gas turbine has a pressure ratio of 10 and uses a working fluid with a specific heat ratio of 1.33. Determine the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine.
   • Solution: $\eta_{Brayton} = 1 - (\frac{P_1}{P_2})^{\frac{\gamma-1}{\gamma}} = 1 - (\frac{1}{10})^{\frac{1.33-1}{1.33}} = 0.448$ or 44.8%
5. A Rankine cycle power plant operates with a maximum temperature of 600°C and a minimum temperature of 50°C. The enthalpy of vaporization at the maximum temperature is 2000 kJ/kg, and the specific heat of the working fluid is 2 kJ/kg·K. Estimate the thermal efficiency of the power plant, assuming ideal processes.
   • Solution: $\eta_{Rankine} = \frac{W_{net}}{Q_{in}} = \frac{Q_{in} - Q_{out}}{Q_{in}} = \frac{(h_1 - h_2) - (h_3 - h_4)}{h_1 - h_4} = \frac{(2000 + 2 \times (600-50)) - (2 \times (600-50))}{2000 + 2 \times (600-50)} = 0.476$ or 47.6%