1.5 Ecosystem services

Ecosystem services are the benefits humans receive from nature. These include food, water, and raw materials, as well as less tangible benefits like climate regulation and pollination. Understanding ecosystem services helps us appreciate nature's value beyond just resources to exploit.

This topic explores four main types of ecosystem services: provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting. It examines how each type contributes to human wellbeing and environmental health in different but interconnected ways.

Types of ecosystem services

• Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans derive from ecosystems, which are essential for human well-being and survival
• These services can be categorized into four main types: provisioning services, regulating services, cultural services, and supporting services
• Each type of service provides different benefits to humans and plays a crucial role in maintaining the health and functioning of ecosystems

Provisioning services

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• Involve the production of goods and materials that humans can directly consume or use
• Include food, water, timber, fiber, fuel, and other resources
• Essential for meeting basic human needs and supporting economic activities
• Examples: crops, livestock, fisheries, freshwater, wood products

Regulating services

• Involve the regulation of ecosystem processes and the maintenance of favorable environmental conditions
• Include climate regulation, air and water purification, flood and disease control, and pollination
• Provide indirect benefits to humans by supporting the production of other ecosystem services
• Examples: carbon sequestration, water filtration, erosion control, pest control

Cultural services

• Involve the non-material benefits that humans derive from ecosystems, such as aesthetic, spiritual, educational, and recreational experiences
• Include cultural diversity, religious and spiritual values, knowledge systems, and ecotourism
• Contribute to human well-being, social cohesion, and cultural identity
• Examples: sacred sites, traditional knowledge, outdoor recreation, artistic inspiration

Supporting services

• Underpin the production of all other ecosystem services by maintaining the basic functioning of ecosystems
• Include soil formation, nutrient cycling, primary production, and water cycling
• Provide the foundation for the other types of ecosystem services
• Examples: photosynthesis, decomposition, nutrient uptake, water retention

Provisioning services

• Provisioning services are the products and materials that ecosystems provide for human use and consumption
• These services are essential for meeting basic human needs, such as food, water, and shelter, as well as supporting economic activities and livelihoods
• The value of provisioning services is often more easily quantified and monetized compared to other types of ecosystem services

Food and fiber

• Ecosystems provide a wide variety of food products, including crops, livestock, fisheries, and wild foods
• Fiber products, such as cotton, wool, and silk, are also derived from ecosystems
• Agriculture and aquaculture are important economic activities that rely on the provisioning of food and fiber
• Examples: wheat, rice, cattle, sheep, salmon, cotton, flax

Fuel

• Ecosystems provide various sources of fuel, such as wood, charcoal, and biofuels
• Fuelwood is an important energy source for many rural communities, particularly in developing countries
• Biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, are derived from plant materials and can be used as a renewable energy source
• Examples: firewood, charcoal, sugarcane ethanol, soybean biodiesel

Genetic resources

• Ecosystems are a rich source of genetic diversity, which can be used for various purposes, such as crop and livestock breeding, biotechnology, and medicine
• Wild species and traditional crop varieties are important reservoirs of genetic diversity
• The conservation of genetic resources is crucial for maintaining the resilience and adaptability of species in the face of environmental change
• Examples: wild relatives of crops, traditional landraces, medicinal plants

Biochemicals and natural medicines

• Ecosystems provide a wide range of biochemicals and natural compounds that can be used for medicinal and other purposes
• Many traditional medicines and modern pharmaceuticals are derived from plant and animal species
• The discovery and development of new drugs often rely on the exploration of biodiversity and traditional knowledge
• Examples: quinine, aspirin, taxol, snake venom

Ornamental resources

• Ecosystems provide various materials that are used for decorative and ornamental purposes, such as flowers, shells, and feathers
• Ornamental resources are often harvested from the wild and traded in international markets
• The overexploitation of ornamental resources can lead to the decline of species populations and the degradation of ecosystems
• Examples: orchids, coral, bird of paradise feathers, elephant ivory

Fresh water

• Ecosystems play a crucial role in the provision and regulation of freshwater resources, such as rivers, lakes, and groundwater
• Forests and wetlands act as natural water filters and help to maintain water quality and quantity
• Freshwater is essential for human consumption, agriculture, industry, and energy production
• Examples: drinking water, irrigation water, hydroelectric power, recreational water use

Regulating services

• Regulating services are the benefits that ecosystems provide by regulating and maintaining various environmental processes and conditions
• These services are often less visible and more difficult to quantify compared to provisioning services, but they are essential for human well-being and the functioning of other ecosystem services
• Regulating services can help to mitigate the impacts of natural disasters, pollution, and climate change

Air quality regulation

• Ecosystems can improve air quality by removing pollutants and particulate matter from the atmosphere
• Vegetation, particularly trees and forests, can absorb and filter air pollutants, such as ozone, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide
• Urban green spaces and green roofs can help to reduce air pollution and improve human health in cities
• Examples: urban parks, green belts, phytoremediation

Climate regulation

• Ecosystems play a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate by influencing the exchange of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, between the atmosphere and the biosphere
• Forests and other vegetation can act as carbon sinks by absorbing and storing carbon dioxide through photosynthesis
• Ecosystems can also affect local and regional climate by influencing temperature, humidity, and precipitation patterns
• Examples: tropical rainforests, peatlands, mangroves, urban green spaces

Water regulation

• Ecosystems can regulate the quantity, quality, and timing of water flows, which is essential for maintaining the health of aquatic ecosystems and the provision of freshwater for human use
• Forests and wetlands can act as natural sponges by absorbing and storing water during wet periods and releasing it gradually during dry periods
• Vegetation can also reduce soil erosion and sedimentation, which can improve water quality and reduce the risk of flooding
• Examples: riparian buffers, floodplains, wetlands, forested watersheds

Erosion control

• Ecosystems can help to prevent or reduce soil erosion by stabilizing soil and reducing the impact of water and wind
• Vegetation, particularly trees and grasses, can anchor soil with their roots and reduce the velocity of surface runoff
• Coastal ecosystems, such as mangroves and salt marshes, can protect shorelines from erosion and storm surges
• Examples: terracing, vegetated slopes, coastal wetlands, dune stabilization

Water purification and waste treatment

• Ecosystems can purify water and treat waste by filtering pollutants, breaking down organic matter, and absorbing nutrients
• Wetlands, particularly constructed wetlands, can be used to treat wastewater and remove contaminants, such as heavy metals and pathogens
• Riparian buffers and vegetated filter strips can reduce the amount of sediment, nutrients, and pesticides entering water bodies from agricultural runoff
• Examples: constructed wetlands, riparian buffers, vegetated swales, bioremediation

Disease regulation

• Ecosystems can regulate the transmission and spread of infectious diseases by influencing the abundance and distribution of disease vectors, such as mosquitoes and ticks
• Biodiversity can help to reduce the risk of disease outbreaks by diluting the prevalence of infected hosts and providing alternative hosts for pathogens
• Ecosystem disturbance and degradation can increase the risk of zoonotic diseases by bringing humans into closer contact with wildlife reservoirs
• Examples: predator-prey interactions, host diversity, habitat fragmentation, land use change

Pest regulation

• Ecosystems can regulate the abundance and impact of agricultural pests by providing habitat for natural enemies, such as predators and parasitoids
• Biological control, which involves the use of natural enemies to control pests, can be an effective and sustainable alternative to chemical pesticides
• Agroecological practices, such as intercropping and crop rotation, can help to reduce pest pressure and improve the resilience of agricultural systems
• Examples: ladybugs, parasitic wasps, crop diversification, push-pull systems

Pollination

• Ecosystems provide pollination services through the activities of animal pollinators, such as bees, butterflies, and birds
• Pollination is essential for the reproduction of many plant species, including crops that are important for human food production
• The decline of pollinator populations, due to factors such as habitat loss, pesticide use, and climate change, can have significant impacts on ecosystem functioning and agricultural productivity
• Examples: honeybees, bumblebees, hummingbirds, bat pollination

Natural hazard regulation

• Ecosystems can help to regulate and mitigate the impacts of natural hazards, such as floods, landslides, and coastal storms
• Forests and wetlands can act as natural buffers by absorbing and slowing down floodwaters, stabilizing slopes, and reducing the impact of storm surges
• Coastal ecosystems, such as mangroves and coral reefs, can protect shorelines from erosion and wave damage
• Examples: floodplain restoration, coastal wetlands, avalanche protection forests, green infrastructure

Cultural services

• Cultural services are the non-material benefits that humans derive from ecosystems, such as aesthetic, spiritual, educational, and recreational experiences
• These services are often intangible and subjective, but they can have significant impacts on human well-being, social cohesion, and cultural identity
• Cultural services are closely linked to human values, beliefs, and traditions, and they can vary across different cultures and societies

Cultural diversity

• Ecosystems can support and maintain cultural diversity by providing the basis for traditional livelihoods, knowledge systems, and cultural practices
• Indigenous and local communities often have deep cultural and spiritual connections to their natural environments, which can shape their identities, languages, and worldviews
• The loss of biodiversity and ecosystem degradation can threaten the survival of traditional cultures and the transmission of cultural knowledge across generations
• Examples: traditional agriculture, ethnobotanical knowledge, cultural landscapes, indigenous languages

Spiritual and religious values

• Ecosystems can have spiritual and religious significance for many cultures and societies, and they can be associated with sacred sites, rituals, and beliefs
• Natural features, such as mountains, rivers, and forests, can be considered sacred or divine, and they can be the focus of religious practices and pilgrimages
• The degradation or destruction of sacred natural sites can have profound impacts on the spiritual well-being and cultural identity of communities
• Examples: sacred groves, holy rivers, mountain worship, animistic beliefs

Knowledge systems

• Ecosystems can be a source of knowledge and inspiration for scientific research, education, and innovation
• Traditional ecological knowledge, which is based on the accumulated experience and observations of indigenous and local communities, can provide valuable insights into ecosystem functioning and sustainable resource management
• Ecosystems can also serve as living laboratories for scientific research and the development of new technologies and products
• Examples: ethnobotany, bioprospecting, biomimicry, citizen science

Educational values

• Ecosystems can provide opportunities for environmental education and the development of ecological literacy
• Natural environments can be used as outdoor classrooms for teaching about biodiversity, ecology, and conservation
• Exposure to nature and outdoor learning experiences can have positive impacts on cognitive development, academic performance, and environmental attitudes and behaviors
• Examples: nature-based education, environmental interpretation, school gardens, field trips

Inspiration

• Ecosystems can be a source of inspiration for art, literature, music, and other creative pursuits
• Natural beauty and the diversity of life can inspire a sense of wonder, awe, and appreciation for the natural world
• Artistic and cultural expressions inspired by nature can help to raise awareness about environmental issues and promote conservation efforts
• Examples: landscape painting, nature poetry, wildlife photography, eco-art

Aesthetic values

• Ecosystems can provide aesthetic experiences and contribute to the scenic beauty of landscapes
• Natural environments, such as forests, mountains, and coastal areas, can have high aesthetic value and attract tourism and recreation
• The aesthetic qualities of ecosystems can also influence property values, regional identity, and sense of place
• Examples: scenic viewpoints, natural landmarks, landscape design, green spaces

Social relations

• Ecosystems can provide opportunities for social interaction, community building, and the development of social capital
• Outdoor recreation activities, such as hiking, camping, and birdwatching, can foster social connections and a sense of community among participants
• Participation in environmental stewardship and conservation activities can also promote social cohesion and a shared sense of purpose
• Examples: community gardens, volunteer events, nature clubs, ecotourism

Sense of place

• Ecosystems can contribute to the development of a sense of place, which refers to the emotional attachment and meaning that people ascribe to particular locations or landscapes
• A strong sense of place can be based on personal experiences, memories, and cultural traditions associated with a particular environment
• The loss or degradation of ecosystems can erode the sense of place and identity of communities, particularly those with deep cultural and historical ties to the land
• Examples: cultural landscapes, traditional land use practices, place-based education, bioregionalism

Cultural heritage values

• Ecosystems can be associated with cultural heritage and historical events, and they can be important for the preservation of cultural identity and continuity
• Traditional land use practices, such as agriculture, fishing, and forestry, can be an integral part of cultural heritage and can shape the character and identity of landscapes
• The conservation of cultural landscapes and traditional knowledge can help to maintain the diversity and resilience of both cultural and ecological systems
• Examples: traditional agricultural landscapes, historic sites, cultural heritage trails, living history museums

Recreation and ecotourism

• Ecosystems can provide opportunities for outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism, which can have economic, social, and health benefits
• Recreational activities, such as hiking, camping, fishing, and wildlife viewing, can promote physical activity, stress reduction, and mental well-being
• Ecotourism, which is a form of sustainable tourism that focuses on the appreciation and conservation of natural and cultural heritage, can provide economic incentives for conservation and support local livelihoods
• Examples: national parks, nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, adventure tourism

Supporting services

• Supporting services are the fundamental ecosystem processes and functions that underpin the provision of all other ecosystem services
• These services are often less visible and more difficult to quantify compared to other types of ecosystem services, but they are essential for the long-term functioning and resilience of ecosystems
• Supporting services are not directly used by humans, but they provide the necessary conditions for the production of provisioning, regulating, and cultural services

Soil formation

• Soil formation is the process by which rock and organic matter are transformed into soil through physical, chemical, and biological processes
• Soil formation is influenced by factors such as climate, topography, parent material, and living organisms, particularly microorganisms and plants
• Healthy soils are essential for plant growth, nutrient cycling, water retention, and carbon storage, and they provide the foundation for many ecosystem services
• Examples: weathering, decomposition, humification, bioturbation

Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and other autotrophic organisms convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into organic compounds and oxygen
• Photosynthesis is the primary source of energy for most ecosystems, and it is the basis for the production of biomass and the cycling of carbon and other nutrients
• The rate and efficiency of photosynthesis can be influenced by factors such as light availability, temperature, water stress, and nutrient availability
• Examples: primary production, carbon fixation, oxygen production, energy flow

Primary production

• Primary production refers to the production of organic matter by autotrophic organisms, such as plants and algae, through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
• Net primary production (NPP) is the amount of energy that is available for transfer to higher trophic levels, after accounting for the energy used by the primary producers for respiration
• Primary production is a key determinant of the productivity and diversity of ecosystems, and it can be influenced by factors such as climate, nutrient availability, and disturbance
• Examples: phytoplankton blooms, forest growth, grassland productivity, coral reef calcification

Nutrient cycling

• Nutrient cycling refers to the movement and transformation of essential nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, through ecosystems
• Nutrient cycling involves the uptake, storage, and release of nutrients by living organisms, as well as the abiotic processes that influence nutrient availability and distribution
• Efficient nutrient cycling is essential for maintaining the productivity and stability of ecosystems, and it can be disrupted by human activities, such as land use change and pollution
• Examples: nitrogen fixation, decomposition, mineralization, nutrient uptake

Water cycling

• Water cycling refers to the movement and storage of water through ecosystems, including the processes of precipitation, evapotranspiration, infiltration, and runoff
• Ecosystems play a crucial role in regulating the quantity, quality, and timing of water flows, which is essential for the provision of freshwater and the maintenance of aquatic habitats
• Vegetation and soil can influence water cycling by intercepting precipitation, facilitating infiltration, and reducing surface runoff and erosion
• Examples: interception, transpiration, groundwater recharge, flood regulation

Valuation of ecosystem services

• Valuation of ecosystem services involves assessing the ecological, economic, and social values of the benefits that ecosystems provide to humans
• Valuation can help to raise awareness about the importance of ecosystem services, inform decision-making about land use and resource management, and provide incentives for conservation and restoration
• Different valuation approaches can be used depending on the type of ecosystem service, the scale of analysis, and the purpose of the valuation

Ecological value

• Ecological value refers to the importance of ecosystem services for maintaining the structure, function, and resilience of ecosystems