explains how changing magnetic fields create electric currents. This fundamental principle underlies the operation of generators, transformers, and other electromagnetic devices, forming a crucial link between electricity and magnetism.
The law states that the induced in a closed loop is proportional to the rate of change of through the loop. This relationship is central to understanding electromagnetic induction and its wide-ranging applications in modern technology.
Faraday's law of induction
Fundamental law in electromagnetism describes the relationship between changing magnetic fields and induced electric fields
States that a time-varying induces an electromotive force (emf) in a conductor or circuit
Forms the basis for understanding the operation of generators, transformers, and other electromagnetic devices
Magnetic flux and flux linkage
Magnetic flux through a surface
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Quantifies the amount of magnetic field passing through a given surface area
Depends on the strength of the magnetic field, the area of the surface, and the orientation of the surface relative to the field
Mathematically expressed as the integral of the magnetic field over the surface area: ΦB=∫B⋅dA
Measured in units of (Wb) or tesla-square meter (T·m²)
Flux linkage in a coil
Represents the total magnetic flux passing through all the turns of a coil or inductor
Calculated by multiplying the magnetic flux through a single turn by the number of turns in the coil: λ=NΦB
Plays a crucial role in determining the induced emf in a coil according to Faraday's law
Measured in units of weber-turns (Wb·turns)
Induced electromotive force (emf)
Faraday's experiments
Faraday discovered that a changing magnetic field can induce an electric current in a conductor
Demonstrated the phenomenon using a coil of wire and a moving magnet
Observed that the depends on the rate of change of the magnetic field and the number of turns in the coil
Laid the foundation for the development of generators and transformers
Mathematical formulation of Faraday's law
States that the induced emf in a closed loop is equal to the negative rate of change of the magnetic flux through the loop: E=−dtdΦB
For a coil with N turns, the induced emf is given by: E=−NdtdΦB
The negative sign indicates that the induced emf opposes the change in magnetic flux ()
Measured in units of volts (V)
Lenz's law and conservation of energy
Direction of induced current
Lenz's law states that the direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux that caused it
The induced current creates a magnetic field that opposes the original change in magnetic flux
Helps maintain the conservation of energy by preventing the creation of perpetual motion
Determines the polarity of the induced emf in a coil or conductor
Energy considerations in induction
The work done by the induced emf is equal to the change in magnetic energy in the system
The induced current dissipates energy as heat due to the resistance of the conductor (Joule heating)
In generators and motors, the done is converted into electrical energy or vice versa
The conservation of energy is always maintained in electromagnetic induction processes
Applications of Faraday's law
Generators and alternators
Devices that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy using Faraday's law
Consist of a rotating coil or conductor in a magnetic field, which induces an emf in the coil
Alternators produce alternating current (AC) by using slip rings and brushes
Generators can produce either AC or direct current (DC) depending on the commutator design
Transformers and power transmission
Devices that change the voltage level of AC power using Faraday's law and mutual inductance
Consist of two or more coils wound on a common magnetic core
The primary coil is connected to the input voltage, while the secondary coil(s) provide the output voltage(s)
Essential for efficient long-distance power transmission and distribution at high voltages
Eddy currents and magnetic braking
Eddy currents are induced in conducting materials when exposed to changing magnetic fields
Create a magnetic field that opposes the motion of the conductor, resulting in magnetic braking
Used in applications such as braking systems, damping of oscillations, and
Can cause energy losses in transformers and other electromagnetic devices
Maxwell's correction to Ampère's law
Displacement current
Maxwell introduced the concept of displacement current to maintain the conservation of charge in time-varying electric fields
Represents the rate of change of the electric flux density: JD=∂t∂D
Allows Ampère's law to be consistent with the continuity equation for electric charge
Crucial for understanding the propagation of electromagnetic waves
Maxwell's equations in integral form
Maxwell's equations summarize the fundamental laws of electromagnetism
Gauss's law for electric fields: ∮E⋅dA=ε0Q
Gauss's law for magnetic fields: ∮B⋅dA=0
Faraday's law: ∮E⋅dl=−dtdΦB
Ampère-Maxwell law: ∮B⋅dl=μ0(I+ε0dtdΦE)
Motional emf and Lorentz force
Moving conductors in magnetic fields
A conductor moving in a magnetic field experiences a motional emf due to the Lorentz force on the charge carriers
The magnitude of the motional emf is given by: E=Blvsinθ, where B is the magnetic field strength, l is the length of the conductor, v is the velocity, and θ is the angle between the velocity and the magnetic field
The direction of the induced current is determined by the right-hand rule
Forms the basis for the operation of electric motors and generators
Hall effect and its applications
The Hall effect occurs when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the current
The Lorentz force deflects the charge carriers, creating a transverse electric field (Hall voltage) across the conductor
The Hall voltage is proportional to the current, magnetic field strength, and the inverse of the carrier density
Used in applications such as magnetic field sensors, current sensors, and semiconductor characterization
Inductance and mutual inductance
Self-inductance of a coil
Self-inductance is the property of a coil that opposes changes in the current flowing through it
Arises due to the magnetic field generated by the current in the coil
The self-inductance of a coil is given by: L=INΦB, where N is the number of turns, ΦB is the magnetic flux, and I is the current
Measured in units of henry (H)
Mutual inductance between coils
Mutual inductance occurs when the magnetic flux generated by one coil links with another coil
The mutual inductance between two coils is given by: M=I1N2ΦB1=I2N1ΦB2, where N1 and N2 are the number of turns in each coil, ΦB1 and ΦB2 are the magnetic fluxes, and I1 and I2 are the currents
Measured in units of henry (H)
Forms the basis for the operation of transformers and coupled inductors
Energy stored in magnetic fields
The energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor is given by: UB=21LI2
Represents the work done in establishing the current in the inductor
Can be released back into the circuit when the current changes
Plays a role in the transient behavior of inductive circuits and the operation of energy storage devices (superconducting magnetic energy storage)
AC circuits and resonance
RLC circuits and impedance
RLC circuits contain resistors (R), inductors (L), and capacitors (C) connected in series or parallel
The impedance (Z) is the total opposition to the flow of alternating current in an RLC circuit
Depends on the resistance, inductance, and capacitance, as well as the frequency of the AC signal
Expressed as a complex number: Z=R+j(ωL−ωC1), where ω is the angular frequency
Resonance in AC circuits
Resonance occurs when the inductive and capacitive reactances in an RLC circuit are equal in magnitude
At resonance, the impedance is purely resistive, and the current and voltage are in phase
The resonant frequency is given by: ω0=LC1
RLC circuits exhibit maximum power transfer and minimum impedance at resonance
Used in applications such as radio and television tuning, wireless power transfer, and filters
Power in AC circuits
In AC circuits, power consists of real (active) power and reactive power
Real power (P) is the average power consumed by the resistive components, measured in watts (W)
Reactive power (Q) is the power exchanged between the inductive and capacitive components, measured in -ampere reactive (VAR)
Apparent power (S) is the vector sum of real and reactive power, measured in volt-ampere (VA)
Power factor (PF) is the ratio of real power to apparent power: PF=SP=cosθ, where θ is the phase angle between voltage and current
Electromagnetic oscillations and waves
LC oscillations
LC circuits consist of an inductor and a capacitor connected in series or parallel
Energy oscillates between the electric field of the capacitor and the magnetic field of the inductor
The oscillation frequency is given by: f=2πLC1
LC oscillations are the basis for the generation and detection of electromagnetic waves
Used in applications such as radio and television broadcasting, wireless communication, and radar
Electromagnetic wave equation
Maxwell's equations can be combined to form the electromagnetic wave equation: ∇2E=μ0ε0∂t2∂2E and ∇2B=μ0ε0∂t2∂2B
Describes the propagation of electromagnetic waves in free space and other media
The speed of electromagnetic waves in free space is given by: c=μ0ε01≈3×108m/s
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves with oscillating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and the direction of propagation
Properties of electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic waves can propagate through vacuum and do not require a medium for transmission
They exhibit properties such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference
The wavelength (λ) and frequency (f) of an electromagnetic wave are related by: λ=fc
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays, distinguished by their wavelengths and frequencies
Electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum, which can be absorbed, emitted, or scattered by matter