1.2 Key theorists and their contributions

Performance studies emerged in the 1970s, blending theater, anthropology, sociology, and cultural studies. This interdisciplinary approach revolutionized how we examine human behavior and cultural practices through performance.

Key theorists like Schechner, Turner, Goffman, and Butler shaped the field's foundations. Their work expanded the definition of performance beyond traditional theater, exploring everyday interactions, rituals, and identity construction as performative acts.

Origins of performance studies

• Performance studies emerged as a distinct field in the 1970s, blending elements from theater, anthropology, sociology, and cultural studies
• This interdisciplinary approach revolutionized the study of human behavior and cultural practices through the lens of performance
• Performance studies examines how people construct and express identity, culture, and social relationships through various forms of performance

Schechner and Turner's collaboration

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• Richard Schechner and Victor Turner's partnership laid the groundwork for performance studies as a discipline
• Their collaboration bridged theater and anthropology, exploring the performative aspects of rituals and social interactions
• Developed the concept of "restored behavior" which views all human actions as performances that can be studied and analyzed
• Emphasized the importance of studying both aesthetic performances (theater) and everyday life performances (social rituals)

Influence of anthropology

• Anthropological methods and theories significantly shaped the development of performance studies
• Introduced ethnographic fieldwork techniques to study performances in their cultural contexts
• Borrowed concepts like liminality and ritual process to analyze the transformative power of performances
• Expanded the definition of performance to include cultural practices, ceremonies, and social interactions (weddings, religious rituals)

Interdisciplinary foundations

• Drew from various academic fields to create a holistic approach to studying human behavior and expression
• Incorporated theories and methodologies from sociology, psychology, linguistics, and cultural studies
• Utilized concepts from semiotics to analyze the symbolic meanings in performances
• Integrated feminist and postcolonial theories to examine power dynamics and representation in performance

Richard Schechner's contributions

• Richard Schechner, a theater director and scholar, played a crucial role in establishing performance studies as an academic discipline
• His work bridged the gap between theater practice and theoretical analysis, emphasizing the importance of studying performance in all aspects of life
• Schechner's theories continue to influence how scholars approach the study of performance in various cultural and social contexts

Broad spectrum approach

• Advocated for expanding the definition of performance beyond traditional theater
• Included rituals, sports, everyday life interactions, and political demonstrations as forms of performance
• Encouraged the study of performance across cultures and historical periods
• Promoted interdisciplinary research methods to analyze diverse performance forms

Performance theory development

• Introduced the concept of "performance text" to analyze the multiple layers of meaning in a performance
• Developed the idea of "restored behavior" as the building blocks of all performances
• Proposed the "efficacy-entertainment braid" to explain the relationship between ritual and theater
• Explored the transformative potential of performance in both individuals and societies

Ritual vs theater concepts

• Examined the similarities and differences between ritual and theatrical performances
• Proposed a continuum between efficacy (ritual) and entertainment (theater) rather than a strict dichotomy
• Analyzed how rituals can become theatricalized and how theater can take on ritual-like qualities
• Explored the role of audience participation and spectatorship in both ritual and theatrical contexts

Victor Turner's impact

• Victor Turner, a British anthropologist, significantly influenced the development of performance studies through his work on ritual and social drama
• His theories provided a framework for understanding the performative aspects of social and cultural processes
• Turner's concepts continue to be applied in analyzing various forms of performance, from traditional rituals to contemporary social movements

Social drama framework

• Developed the concept of social drama as a model for analyzing social conflicts and their resolution
• Identified four stages of social drama breach, crisis, redressive action, and reintegration
• Applied this framework to study both traditional societies and modern political events
• Demonstrated how performances often emerge from or respond to social dramas

Liminality and communitas

• Introduced the concept of liminality to describe the transitional state in rituals and performances
• Explored how liminal experiences can lead to communitas, a sense of equality and shared experience among participants
• Applied these concepts to analyze various cultural phenomena (pilgrimages, initiation rites)
• Influenced performance artists to create experiences that induce liminal states in audiences

Ritual process analysis

• Developed a systematic approach to studying rituals as performances with transformative power
• Identified three phases in the ritual process separation, liminal period, and reintegration
• Examined how rituals create and reinforce social structures and cultural values
• Applied this analysis to both traditional rituals and modern secular events (political inaugurations, sports events)

Erving Goffman's perspective

• Erving Goffman, a Canadian-American sociologist, contributed significantly to performance studies through his dramaturgical approach to social interactions
• His work focused on how individuals present themselves and manage impressions in everyday life
• Goffman's theories have been widely applied in analyzing both everyday performances and staged theatrical events

Dramaturgical approach

• Proposed viewing social interactions as theatrical performances with actors, audiences, and settings
• Analyzed how individuals manage their "front stage" and "backstage" behaviors in different social contexts
• Explored the concept of "teams" in social performances, where multiple individuals work together to maintain a shared definition of the situation
• Applied theatrical metaphors to understand social roles, scripts, and props in everyday life

Presentation of self

• Developed the concept of "impression management" to describe how individuals control others' perceptions of them
• Analyzed the use of "face-work" techniques to maintain social harmony and avoid embarrassment
• Explored how individuals use verbal and non-verbal cues to project desired identities
• Examined the role of social norms and expectations in shaping self-presentation strategies

Frame analysis concept

• Introduced the idea of "frames" as cognitive structures that guide interpretation of social situations
• Analyzed how individuals switch between different frames to make sense of complex social interactions
• Explored the concept of "keying" to understand how activities can be transformed into different types of performances
• Applied frame analysis to study various forms of performance (theater, sports, rituals)

Judith Butler's influence

• Judith Butler, an American philosopher and gender theorist, has significantly impacted performance studies through her work on gender performativity
• Her theories have expanded the understanding of identity as a performative act, challenging essentialist notions of gender and sexuality
• Butler's work continues to influence contemporary discussions on identity, representation, and social norms in performance studies

Performativity theory

• Proposed that gender is not an innate essence but a series of repeated performative acts
• Challenged the distinction between sex and gender, arguing that both are socially constructed
• Explored how performativity extends beyond gender to other aspects of identity (race, class, sexuality)
• Analyzed how social norms and power structures shape and constrain performative possibilities

Gender as performance

• Argued that gender is not something one is, but something one does through repeated stylized acts
• Examined how gender norms are reinforced and subverted through everyday performances
• Analyzed drag performances as a way to expose the constructed nature of gender
• Explored the concept of gender parody and its potential for challenging binary gender systems

Identity construction ideas

• Proposed that all identities are performatively constituted through language and action
• Examined how power structures and social norms shape the available scripts for identity performance
• Analyzed the potential for agency and subversion within the constraints of social norms
• Explored the concept of "citationality" to understand how identity performances draw on and rework existing cultural scripts

Peggy Phelan's work

• Peggy Phelan, an American feminist scholar, has made significant contributions to performance studies through her work on the ontology of performance and representation
• Her theories have challenged traditional notions of documentation and preservation in performance art
• Phelan's work continues to influence discussions on the nature of live performance and its relationship to other media

Ontology of performance

• Argued that performance's essence lies in its disappearance and resistance to reproduction
• Challenged the primacy of visual representation in Western culture
• Explored the tension between presence and absence in live performance
• Analyzed how performance resists commodification and challenges capitalist modes of production

Unmarked representation

• Developed the concept of "unmarked" to describe what cannot be fully captured or represented
• Examined how certain identities and experiences resist visibility and representation
• Analyzed the political implications of marking and unmarking in performance and visual culture
• Explored the potential of performance to engage with the unmarked and unrepresentable

Ephemerality of live performance

• Emphasized the unique qualities of live performance that cannot be captured through documentation
• Challenged the notion that performance needs to leave behind material traces to have value
• Explored how the ephemerality of performance relates to memory and cultural transmission
• Analyzed the implications of digital technologies on the concept of liveness in performance

Diana Taylor's concepts

• Diana Taylor, a scholar of Latin American and performance studies, has significantly contributed to the field through her work on cultural memory and embodied knowledge
• Her theories have expanded the understanding of how performance functions as a system of learning, storing, and transmitting knowledge
• Taylor's work continues to influence discussions on cultural preservation, decolonization, and the role of performance in social and political contexts

Archive vs repertoire

• Introduced the distinction between the archive (enduring materials) and the repertoire (embodied practices)
• Analyzed how different forms of knowledge are preserved and transmitted through these two systems
• Explored the power dynamics involved in privileging archival knowledge over embodied knowledge
• Examined how performance can bridge the gap between archive and repertoire

Embodied knowledge

• Emphasized the importance of bodily practices in transmitting cultural memory and knowledge
• Analyzed how gestures, dance, and other physical practices carry cultural meanings across generations
• Explored the role of performance in preserving and transmitting knowledge in oral cultures
• Examined how embodied knowledge challenges Western epistemologies centered on written texts

Performance as cultural memory

• Analyzed how performances act as repositories of cultural memory and historical knowledge
• Explored the role of performance in preserving and transmitting cultural traditions
• Examined how performance can challenge official historical narratives and offer alternative perspectives
• Analyzed the potential of performance to heal historical trauma and foster community resilience

Dwight Conquergood's approach

• Dwight Conquergood, an ethnographer and performance studies scholar, made significant contributions to the field through his work on performance ethnography and ethics
• His approach emphasized the importance of embodied knowledge and the political dimensions of performance research
• Conquergood's theories continue to influence discussions on research ethics, representation, and the role of performance in social justice

Performance ethnography

• Developed an approach to ethnographic research that emphasizes embodied participation and performance
• Challenged traditional notions of objective observation in anthropological fieldwork
• Emphasized the importance of co-performance and dialogue in understanding cultural practices
• Explored how performance can be used as both a method of research and a mode of presenting findings

Ethics in performance studies

• Developed a framework for ethical considerations in performance research and practice
• Emphasized the importance of reciprocity and dialogue in researcher-participant relationships
• Explored the ethical implications of representing others through performance
• Analyzed the power dynamics involved in cross-cultural performance research and representation

Dialogical performance concept

• Proposed a model of performance that emphasizes dialogue and mutual understanding
• Challenged the notion of performance as a one-way transmission from performer to audience
• Explored how dialogical performance can foster empathy and cross-cultural understanding
• Analyzed the potential of dialogical performance for addressing social and political issues

Augusto Boal's techniques

• Augusto Boal, a Brazilian theater practitioner and political activist, significantly influenced performance studies through his development of the Theatre of the Oppressed
• His work focused on using theater as a tool for social and political change, empowering marginalized communities
• Boal's techniques continue to be applied in various contexts, from community development to education and therapy

Theatre of the oppressed

• Developed a system of theatrical techniques aimed at promoting social and political change
• Emphasized the importance of transforming passive spectators into active participants ("spect-actors")
• Explored how theater can be used to analyze and challenge oppressive social structures
• Applied these techniques in various contexts (community organizing, education, therapy)

Forum theatre methodology

• Created a participatory theater form where audience members can intervene and change the outcome of a scene
• Emphasized the importance of rehearsing for reality and exploring alternative solutions to social problems
• Developed techniques for facilitating discussions and reflections after performances
• Applied forum theatre to address various social issues (gender inequality, racial discrimination, labor rights)

Invisible theatre concept

• Developed a form of performance that takes place in public spaces without the audience knowing it's staged
• Aimed to provoke discussion and reflection on social issues among unsuspecting bystanders
• Explored the boundaries between performance and reality in everyday life
• Analyzed the ethical implications and potential risks of invisible theatre performances

Key debates and controversies

• Performance studies, as an interdisciplinary field, has been shaped by various debates and controversies
• These discussions reflect broader cultural and technological changes, as well as ongoing negotiations about the nature and purpose of performance
• Understanding these debates is crucial for grasping the complex landscape of contemporary performance studies

Liveness vs mediation

• Examines the impact of digital technologies on the concept of live performance
• Debates the ontological differences between live and mediated performances
• Explores how new media forms (livestreaming, virtual reality) challenge traditional notions of presence and absence
• Analyzes the economic and cultural implications of the increasing mediatization of performance

Authenticity in performance

• Questions the notion of authenticity in relation to cultural performances and representations
• Examines the tensions between tradition and innovation in performance practices
• Explores how claims of authenticity are used to legitimize or delegitimize certain performances
• Analyzes the role of authenticity in the marketing and reception of performances

Cultural appropriation issues

• Addresses the ethical and political implications of borrowing or adapting performance practices across cultures
• Examines the power dynamics involved in cross-cultural performance and representation
• Explores the tension between cultural exchange and exploitation in global performance contexts
• Analyzes strategies for respectful and ethical engagement with diverse cultural traditions in performance

Contemporary theorists' contributions

• Recent scholars in performance studies have expanded the field's scope and methodologies
• Their work reflects emerging cultural, technological, and theoretical developments
• These contemporary approaches continue to push the boundaries of what constitutes performance and how it can be studied

Intersectionality in performance

• Applies intersectional frameworks to analyze how multiple identities interact in performance contexts
• Examines how race, gender, class, and sexuality intersect in shaping performance practices and reception
• Explores how intersectional approaches can reveal power dynamics and inequalities in performance
• Analyzes performances that challenge or reinforce intersecting systems of oppression

Digital performance theories

• Examines the impact of digital technologies on performance practices and audience engagement
• Explores new forms of performance emerging in digital spaces (social media performances, online gaming)
• Analyzes how digital tools are changing the creation, distribution, and reception of performances
• Examines the blurring boundaries between live and digital performances in contemporary culture

Posthuman performance concepts

• Explores how emerging technologies and ecological concerns are reshaping notions of the human in performance
• Examines performances that challenge anthropocentric perspectives and human-nature binaries
• Analyzes the role of non-human actors (animals, machines, environments) in performance events
• Explores how posthuman theories can offer new perspectives on embodiment and agency in performance