Terrestrial biomes are Earth's major land ecosystems, shaped by , soil, and unique plant and animal communities. From frozen to lush rainforests, these biomes showcase nature's diversity and adaptability to different environmental conditions.
Understanding terrestrial biomes is crucial for grasping global ecology and conservation. Human activities like and climate change are altering these ecosystems, highlighting the need for and protection of Earth's vital landscapes.
Types of terrestrial biomes
Terrestrial biomes are large regions of land characterized by distinct climate patterns, soil types, and communities of plants and animals
The distribution of terrestrial biomes is primarily determined by temperature and precipitation, which influence the types of that can grow in an area
Major terrestrial biomes include tundra, , , , , , and
Characteristics of terrestrial biomes
Climate in terrestrial biomes
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Climate is a key factor in determining the distribution and characteristics of terrestrial biomes
Temperature and vary significantly across different biomes, ranging from cold and dry conditions in tundra to hot and humid conditions in tropical rainforests
Seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation also play a role in shaping the structure and function of terrestrial biomes
Soil in terrestrial biomes
and quality vary among terrestrial biomes, influenced by factors such as climate, vegetation, and geological history
In cold biomes like tundra, soils are often thin, nutrient-poor, and underlain by permafrost
Temperate and tropical biomes generally have more developed soils with higher organic matter content and nutrient availability
Vegetation in terrestrial biomes
Vegetation structure and composition are adapted to the specific climate and soil conditions of each biome
Tundra is characterized by low-growing plants like mosses, lichens, and hardy shrubs
Forests (boreal, temperate, and tropical) are dominated by trees, with varying levels of understory vegetation
Grasslands and savannas are characterized by grasses and scattered trees or shrubs
Tundra biome
Climate of tundra
Tundra experiences extremely cold temperatures, with long, harsh winters and short, cool summers
Annual precipitation is low, typically less than 25 cm (10 inches), and mostly occurs as snow
Permafrost (permanently frozen ground) is a defining feature of tundra soils
Soil of tundra
Tundra soils are thin, nutrient-poor, and often waterlogged due to the underlying permafrost
Soil development is slow due to the cold temperatures and short growing season
Cryoturbation (mixing of soil layers due to freeze-thaw cycles) is common in tundra soils
Flora of tundra
Tundra vegetation is adapted to the harsh climate and includes low-growing plants like mosses, lichens, sedges, and dwarf shrubs
Plants have shallow root systems to avoid the permafrost layer and often grow in dense clumps to protect against wind and cold
Examples of tundra plants include Arctic willow, bearberry, and cotton grass
Fauna of tundra
Tundra animals are adapted to the cold climate and scarce resources, with many species migrating or hibernating during the winter
Large herbivores like caribou and musk oxen graze on tundra vegetation
Predators such as Arctic foxes, snowy owls, and polar bears hunt smaller animals like lemmings and voles
Boreal forest biome
Climate of boreal forests
Boreal forests (also known as taiga) experience cold, dry winters and short, cool summers
Annual precipitation ranges from 40-100 cm (16-39 inches), with most falling as snow during the winter
Growing seasons are short, typically lasting 3-5 months
Soil of boreal forests
Boreal forest soils are often acidic and nutrient-poor due to slow decomposition rates in the cold climate
Soils are typically podzols, characterized by a thick layer of organic matter (litter) on top of mineral soil horizons
Permafrost may be present in some areas, limiting soil development and drainage
Flora of boreal forests
Boreal forests are dominated by coniferous trees such as spruce, fir, and pine, which are adapted to the cold climate and nutrient-poor soils
Understory vegetation is relatively sparse and includes shrubs like blueberry and lingonberry, as well as mosses and lichens
Deciduous trees like birch and aspen may be present in areas with better soil conditions or following disturbances like fire
Fauna of boreal forests
Boreal forests support a diverse range of animals adapted to the cold climate and coniferous habitat
Large herbivores include moose, deer, and caribou, which browse on trees and shrubs
Predators such as lynx, wolves, and bears hunt smaller mammals like snowshoe hares and rodents
Many migratory bird species, such as warblers and thrushes, breed in boreal forests during the summer
Temperate forest biome
Climate of temperate forests
Temperate forests experience distinct seasonal changes, with cold winters and warm summers
Annual precipitation ranges from 75-150 cm (30-59 inches), distributed relatively evenly throughout the year
Growing seasons are longer than in boreal forests, typically lasting 5-7 months
Soil of temperate forests
Temperate forest soils are generally fertile and well-developed, with a rich organic layer (humus) and active soil fauna
Soils are often alfisols or mollisols, characterized by a high base saturation and good drainage
Soil pH and nutrient availability vary depending on the underlying bedrock and vegetation type
Flora of temperate forests
Temperate forests are characterized by a mix of deciduous and coniferous trees, with species composition varying by region and elevation
Deciduous trees like oak, maple, and beech dominate many temperate forests, shedding their leaves in the fall
Understory vegetation is diverse and includes shrubs, herbaceous plants, and spring ephemerals that take advantage of the high light levels before the canopy closes
Fauna of temperate forests
Temperate forests support a wide range of animals, including both generalists and specialists
Large herbivores like deer and elk browse on vegetation, while smaller mammals like squirrels and chipmunks feed on seeds and nuts
Predators such as bobcats, foxes, and owls hunt smaller animals, while omnivores like bears and raccoons have diverse diets
Many bird species, including woodpeckers, warblers, and thrushes, are found in temperate forests
Temperate grassland biome
Climate of temperate grasslands
Temperate grasslands experience hot summers and cold winters, with moderate precipitation
Annual precipitation ranges from 25-90 cm (10-35 inches), with most falling during the growing season
Frequent droughts and fires are common in temperate grasslands, shaping the vegetation structure
Soil of temperate grasslands
Temperate grassland soils are often deep and fertile, with a high organic matter content from the dense root systems of grasses
Soils are typically mollisols, characterized by a thick, dark surface horizon (A horizon) rich in nutrients
Soil formation is influenced by the semi-arid climate, with less leaching and weathering compared to wetter biomes
Flora of temperate grasslands
Temperate grasslands are dominated by a diverse mix of grasses and forbs (non-woody flowering plants)
Grasses are well-adapted to the frequent fires and grazing by large herbivores, with deep root systems and the ability to resprout quickly
Examples of temperate grassland plants include big bluestem, switchgrass, and purple coneflower
Fauna of temperate grasslands
Temperate grasslands support a variety of animals adapted to the open habitat and seasonal changes in resource availability
Large herbivores like bison, pronghorn, and wild horses graze on the abundant grasses
Smaller mammals such as prairie dogs, ground squirrels, and badgers create burrows and modify the landscape
Predators like coyotes, hawks, and ferrets hunt the smaller animals, while omnivores like foxes and skunks have more diverse diets
Temperate desert biome
Climate of temperate deserts
Temperate deserts experience hot, dry summers and cool winters with minimal precipitation
Annual precipitation is typically less than 25 cm (10 inches), with most falling as brief, intense rainstorms
High evaporation rates and large temperature fluctuations between day and night are common
Soil of temperate deserts
Temperate desert soils are often sandy or rocky, with low organic matter content and limited soil development
Soils are typically aridisols, characterized by a lack of moisture and the accumulation of salts and carbonates
Biological soil crust, composed of cyanobacteria, lichens, and mosses, plays a crucial role in stabilizing desert soils and fixing nitrogen
Flora of temperate deserts
Temperate desert vegetation is sparse and adapted to the harsh, dry conditions
Plants have various adaptations to conserve water, such as small leaves, thick cuticles, and deep root systems
Examples of temperate desert plants include cacti, yucca, and sagebrush
Fauna of temperate deserts
Temperate desert animals are adapted to the extreme temperatures and scarce water resources
Many animals are nocturnal or crepuscular (active at dawn and dusk) to avoid the heat of the day
Examples of temperate desert animals include kangaroo rats, rattlesnakes, and roadrunners
Insects and other invertebrates, such as scorpions and beetles, are also abundant in temperate deserts
Tropical savanna biome
Climate of tropical savannas
Tropical savannas experience hot temperatures year-round, with distinct wet and dry seasons
Annual precipitation ranges from 50-130 cm (20-50 inches), with most falling during the wet season
The length of the dry season varies, but can last several months
Soil of tropical savannas
Tropical savanna soils are often nutrient-poor and heavily weathered due to the high temperatures and seasonal rainfall
Soils are typically oxisols or ultisols, characterized by a high clay content and low fertility
Termites play a significant role in soil turnover and nutrient cycling in tropical savannas
Flora of tropical savannas
Tropical savannas are characterized by a continuous layer of grasses and scattered trees or shrubs
Grasses are fire-adapted and quickly resprout after burning, while trees have thick bark and deep root systems to survive fires and drought
Examples of tropical savanna plants include acacia trees, baobab trees, and elephant grass
Fauna of tropical savannas
Tropical savannas support a diverse array of animals, many of which are adapted to the seasonal changes in resource availability
Large herbivores like elephants, giraffes, and zebras graze on the abundant grasses and browse on trees and shrubs
Predators such as lions, cheetahs, and hyenas hunt the herbivores, while smaller carnivores like jackals and wild dogs target smaller prey
Many bird species, including ostriches, secretary birds, and oxpeckers, are found in tropical savannas
Tropical rainforest biome
Climate of tropical rainforests
Tropical rainforests experience hot, humid conditions year-round, with little seasonal variation in temperature
Annual precipitation is high, typically exceeding 200 cm (79 inches), and is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year
Humidity levels are consistently high, often above 80%
Soil of tropical rainforests
Tropical rainforest soils are often nutrient-poor and heavily weathered due to the high temperatures and abundant rainfall
Soils are typically oxisols or ultisols, characterized by a high clay content and low fertility
Despite the low soil quality, the rapid nutrient cycling between plants and the soil supports the high of tropical rainforests
Flora of tropical rainforests
Tropical rainforests are characterized by a complex, multi-layered structure with a high diversity of plant species
The canopy layer is dominated by tall, broadleaf evergreen trees, while the understory contains smaller trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants
Epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants) and lianas (woody vines) are abundant in tropical rainforests
Examples of tropical rainforest plants include bromeliads, orchids, and figs
Fauna of tropical rainforests
Tropical rainforests support an incredible diversity of animal life, with many species found nowhere else on Earth
Arboreal (tree-dwelling) animals like monkeys, sloths, and birds are common, adapted to life in the complex canopy
Large mammals such as tapirs, jaguars, and gorillas inhabit the forest floor, while countless invertebrates, amphibians, and reptiles occupy various niches
Many species have evolved complex relationships, such as mutualisms between plants and their pollinators or seed dispersers
Human impacts on terrestrial biomes
Deforestation of terrestrial biomes
Deforestation, the removal of forests for timber, agriculture, or development, is a major threat to terrestrial biomes, particularly tropical rainforests
Clearing forests leads to habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation, threatening biodiversity and altering ecosystem functions
Deforestation also contributes to climate change by releasing stored carbon and reducing the capacity of forests to absorb atmospheric CO2
Desertification of terrestrial biomes
Desertification is the process by which drylands (arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid areas) become increasingly degraded and unproductive
Overgrazing, unsustainable agriculture, and climate change can all contribute to desertification
Desertification leads to soil erosion, loss of vegetation cover, and reduced biodiversity, ultimately impacting the livelihoods of millions of people
Conservation of terrestrial biomes
Conservation efforts aim to protect and restore terrestrial biomes and their associated biodiversity
Strategies include establishing , promoting sustainable land management practices, and restoring degraded habitats
Engaging local communities and addressing socio-economic factors are crucial for successful conservation outcomes
International agreements, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, provide frameworks for global cooperation in conserving terrestrial biomes