10.2 The Byzantine Empire and Persia

The Byzantine Empire, born from the Eastern Roman Empire, evolved into a unique civilization blending Greek, Roman, and Christian elements. Its shift to Greek, embrace of Christianity, and preservation of classical knowledge shaped its identity and influence for centuries.

Meanwhile, the Sasanian Empire revived Persian glory, establishing a centralized state with Zoroastrianism at its core. These two powers engaged in a long rivalry, competing for territory and influence while also exchanging culture and ideas, ultimately weakening each other.

The Byzantine Empire

Language, Religion, Art, and Knowledge

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• Shift from Latin to Greek as the official language
  • Greek became the language of administration, law, and literature reflecting the empire's increasingly eastern orientation and Hellenistic cultural influences
  • Latin remained in use for some official documents and ceremonies, particularly in the early Byzantine period
• Christianization of the empire
  • Emperor Constantine I legalized Christianity in 313 CE with the Edict of Milan, ending centuries of persecution
  • Christianity became the state religion under Theodosius I in 380 CE, leading to the suppression of pagan practices and temples
  • Church and state became closely intertwined, with the emperor playing a significant role in religious affairs (caesaropapism)
• Development of a distinct Byzantine art and architecture
  • Blending of Greco-Roman, Christian, and eastern influences (Syrian, Egyptian, Persian) created a unique artistic style
  • Iconic examples include the Hagia Sophia, a massive domed church in Constantinople, and intricate Byzantine mosaics adorning churches and palaces
  • Emphasis on religious themes, such as Christ Pantocrator, the Virgin Mary, and saints, as well as imperial imagery
• Preservation and transmission of classical knowledge
  • Byzantine scholars copied and commented on ancient Greek texts in scriptoria, ensuring their survival
  • Played a crucial role in the transmission of classical learning to the Islamic world through diplomatic contacts and trade, and later to the West during the Renaissance
  • Notable scholars include Photios, Michael Psellos, and Anna Komnene, who wrote extensively on history, philosophy, and theology

The Sasanian Empire

Rise, Governance, Culture, and Expansion

• Founded by Ardashir I in 224 CE after overthrowing the Parthian Empire
  • Ardashir I, a vassal king, rebelled against the weakened Parthian rulers and established the Sasanian dynasty
  • Claimed descent from the ancient Achaemenid Persian Empire, seeking to restore Persian glory
• Centralized government under the Shahanshah (King of Kings)
  • Powerful bureaucracy and standing army enabled efficient administration and military campaigns
  • Division of empire into provinces governed by appointed officials, often members of the royal family or nobility
  • Rigorous tax collection system and state ownership of land and resources
• Zoroastrianism as the state religion
  • Promoted by the Sasanian rulers as a unifying force, with the Shahanshah seen as a divine representative
  • Religious hierarchy closely tied to the state, with Zoroastrian priests holding significant influence
  • Other religions, such as Christianity and Judaism, were tolerated but subject to periodic persecution
• Development of a distinct Persian culture and identity
  • Promotion of Persian language and literature, including the compilation of the Avesta, the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism
  • Patronage of the arts, including metalwork (silver plates), textiles (silk), and architecture (palaces at Ctesiphon)
  • Synthesis of Persian, Hellenistic, and Mesopotamian cultural elements
• Military conquests and territorial expansion
  • Conflicts with the Roman and later Byzantine Empires over control of the Levant, Mesopotamia, and the Caucasus
  • Expansion into Central Asia and the Caucasus, bringing the Silk Road trade under Sasanian influence
  • Development of a sophisticated military with heavily armored cavalry (cataphracts) and siege engines

Byzantine-Sasanian Relations

• Long-standing rivalry and conflict
  • Battles for control of the Levant, Mesopotamia, and the Caucasus, with fortunes shifting back and forth
  • Notable conflicts include the Byzantine-Sasanian War of 602-628 CE, which weakened both empires
  • Religious differences and competition for influence in the Christian communities of the Near East
• Periods of peace and diplomatic exchange
  • Occasional truces and peace treaties, such as the Peace of Nisibis in 299 CE, which established borders and trade agreements
  • Exchange of ambassadors and cultural influences, particularly in art and court ceremonies
  • Collaboration against common threats, such as nomadic invasions from Central Asia
• Religious tensions
  • Byzantine persecution of Christians in Sasanian territories, particularly during periods of conflict
  • Sasanian support for Zoroastrianism and occasional persecution of Christians, seen as potential allies of the Byzantines
  • Doctrinal disputes within Christianity, such as Nestorianism, leading to the establishment of separate churches in Sasanian lands
• Economic and cultural exchange
  • Trade along the Silk Road and other routes, with the Byzantines and Sasanians acting as intermediaries between East and West
  • Transmission of artistic styles and motifs between the two empires, evident in textiles, metalwork, and architecture
  • Exchange of knowledge and technology, particularly in the fields of medicine, astronomy, and philosophy
• Mutual exhaustion and vulnerability to external threats
  • Weakened by prolonged warfare against each other, with heavy losses in manpower and resources
  • Left both empires vulnerable to the rise of Islam in the 7th century CE, leading to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the loss of Byzantine territories in the Levant and North Africa
  • Decline of the Byzantine Empire in the face of Arab, Bulgar, and later Turkish invasions, leading to its eventual fall in 1453 CE