10.1 Early television

Early television emerged from technological advancements in electricity and motion pictures. Mechanical and electronic systems competed, with inventors like Baird, Farnsworth, and Zworykin developing key components. Networks formed to produce and distribute content, shaping the commercial broadcasting landscape.

Programming evolved from live broadcasts to studio productions and adapted radio shows. Advertising played a crucial role, with sponsors initially controlling entire programs. Television's impact on society was profound, influencing family life, national identity, and cultural norms.

Origins of television technology

• Television technology emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, building upon advancements in electricity, photography, and motion pictures
• Early television systems were divided into two main categories: mechanical and electronic, each with their own unique approaches to capturing, transmitting, and displaying moving images
• The development of television technology was driven by the contributions of numerous inventors, engineers, and entrepreneurs who sought to bring the dream of "seeing by electricity" to fruition

Mechanical television systems

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• Relied on spinning discs or mirrors to scan and reconstruct images
• Used a Nipkow disc, invented by Paul Nipkow in 1884, which had a spiral of perforated holes to scan an image
• John Logie Baird, a Scottish inventor, demonstrated the first working mechanical television system in 1926
  • Baird's system used a Nipkow disc for scanning and a neon lamp for displaying images
  • Successfully transmitted silhouette images and later moving images with limited resolution and frame rate

Electronic television systems

• Utilized cathode ray tubes (CRTs) to scan and display images electronically
• Philo Farnsworth, an American inventor, developed the first fully electronic television system in 1927
  • Farnsworth's system used an "image dissector" camera tube to scan images and a CRT to display them
  • Demonstrated superior image quality and eliminated the need for mechanical components
• Vladimir Zworykin, a Russian-American engineer, invented the iconoscope camera tube and kinescope display tube in the early 1930s
  • Zworykin's inventions formed the basis for RCA's electronic television system, which became the industry standard

Key inventors and their contributions

• Paul Nipkow: Invented the Nipkow disc, a key component in mechanical television systems
• John Logie Baird: Demonstrated the first working mechanical television system and pioneered early television broadcasting
• Philo Farnsworth: Developed the first fully electronic television system, including the "image dissector" camera tube
• Vladimir Zworykin: Invented the iconoscope camera tube and kinescope display tube, which became the foundation for electronic television
• Charles Francis Jenkins: Invented a mechanical television system and established the first television station in the United States (W3XK) in 1928

Establishment of television networks

• As television technology advanced and the medium gained popularity, networks were established to produce, distribute, and broadcast television content to a growing audience
• Networks played a crucial role in shaping the early television industry by providing a centralized source of programming, setting technical standards, and promoting the growth of the medium
• The establishment of television networks in the United States laid the foundation for the commercial broadcasting system that would dominate the industry for decades to come

Major networks in the US

• National Broadcasting Company (NBC): Established in 1926 as a radio network, NBC began regular television broadcasting in 1939
  • NBC was owned by the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) and initially focused on promoting the sale of television sets
• Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS): Began as a radio network in 1927 and launched its television network in 1941
  • CBS invested heavily in television programming and talent, becoming a major competitor to NBC
• American Broadcasting Company (ABC): Formed in 1943 from the sale of the NBC Blue radio network, ABC entered television broadcasting in 1948
  • ABC initially struggled to compete with NBC and CBS but gained ground in the 1950s with popular programming

Development of network programming

• Early network programming consisted primarily of live broadcasts, including news, sports, and entertainment shows
• Networks adapted popular radio formats for television, such as variety shows, sitcoms, and dramas
  • Examples include "The Milton Berle Show" (NBC), "The Ed Sullivan Show" (CBS), and "The Lone Ranger" (ABC)
• As the medium matured, networks began to invest in original television programming and experiment with new formats
  • "I Love Lucy" (CBS) revolutionized the sitcom format and became one of the most popular shows of the 1950s

Affiliate stations and their roles

• Networks relied on a system of affiliate stations to broadcast their programming to local markets across the country
• Affiliate stations were typically owned by independent broadcasters who entered into agreements with the networks to carry their programming
  • In exchange, affiliates received a portion of the advertising revenue generated by network shows
• Local stations also produced their own programming, such as local news, sports, and public affairs shows, to serve their communities
• The relationship between networks and affiliates was crucial to the growth and success of early television, as it enabled networks to reach a national audience and provided local stations with high-quality programming

Early television programming

• In the early years of television, programming was characterized by live broadcasts, studio-based productions, and adaptations of popular radio shows
• The limitations of technology and the need to fill airtime led to a diverse array of programming that laid the foundation for the genres and formats that would define the medium in the decades to come
• Early television programming reflected the social and cultural norms of the time, as well as the experimental nature of the new medium

Live broadcasts and their challenges

• Live programming dominated early television due to the lack of reliable recording technology
  • News, sports, and special events were broadcast live from the studio or remote locations
  • Examples include the 1947 World Series, the 1948 presidential election, and the 1951 Kefauver Committee hearings
• Live broadcasts presented numerous technical and logistical challenges
  • Camera and microphone placement, lighting, and sound quality were difficult to control in live settings
  • Performers had to adapt to the demands of live television, including memorizing lines and hitting precise marks
• The unpredictable nature of live television led to memorable moments and bloopers that became part of the medium's lore
  • Examples include the "Heidi Game" in 1968, where NBC cut away from a live football game to broadcast the scheduled movie "Heidi"

Studio-based productions

• Studio-based productions, such as variety shows, game shows, and dramas, were a staple of early television programming
• Studios were equipped with multiple cameras, elaborate sets, and live audiences to create an immersive viewing experience
  • "The Honeymooners" (CBS) was filmed using the three-camera setup that became standard for sitcoms
• Studio-based productions allowed for greater control over lighting, sound, and camera angles compared to live broadcasts
• The use of studios also enabled the creation of more complex and ambitious programming, such as the anthology series "Playhouse 90" (CBS)

Adaptation of radio shows for television

• Many popular radio shows were adapted for television in the early years of the medium
  • Sitcoms like "The Goldbergs" and "Amos 'n' Andy" made the transition from radio to television
  • Quiz shows, such as "The $64,000 Question" and "Twenty One," became popular on television after success on radio
• Adapting radio shows for television presented challenges and opportunities
  • Visual elements had to be added to shows that previously relied solely on audio
  • The intimate nature of radio storytelling had to be translated to the visual medium of television
• The success of adapted radio shows helped to establish television as a popular entertainment medium and paved the way for original television programming

Advertising in early television

• Advertising played a crucial role in the development and growth of early television, as it provided the primary source of revenue for networks and stations
• The relationship between advertisers and television programming evolved over time, shaping the content and structure of the medium
• Early television advertising laid the foundation for the commercial broadcasting system that would dominate the industry for decades to come

Sponsorship model of advertising

• In the early years of television, advertisers often sponsored entire programs, a practice carried over from radio
  • Sponsors would have their names and products prominently featured in the show's title, opening credits, and content
  • Examples include "Texaco Star Theater" (NBC) and "Colgate Comedy Hour" (NBC)
• Sponsorship allowed advertisers to have greater control over the content and messaging of the programs they supported
  • Some sponsors even produced their own shows, such as "Kraft Television Theatre" (NBC) and "Goodyear Television Playhouse" (NBC)
• The sponsorship model began to decline in the late 1950s as the cost of television production increased and advertisers sought more flexibility in their advertising strategies

Evolution of commercial breaks

• As the sponsorship model waned, the practice of inserting commercial breaks into television programs became more common
• Commercial breaks allowed multiple advertisers to purchase airtime within a single program
  • This provided greater flexibility for advertisers and enabled networks to generate revenue from a wider range of sources
• The length and frequency of commercial breaks increased over time, leading to concerns about the impact of advertising on the viewing experience
  • The "magazine format" of advertising, with shorter, more frequent commercial breaks, became the industry standard by the 1960s

Impact of advertising on programming

• The influence of advertisers on television programming was significant in the early years of the medium
• Advertisers often dictated the content and tone of the programs they sponsored, leading to a focus on family-friendly, non-controversial content
  • Programs that tackled sensitive social or political issues, such as "The Defenders" (CBS), were rare and often faced resistance from advertisers
• The need to appeal to advertisers also influenced the scheduling and formatting of television programming
  • The concept of "prime time" emerged as advertisers sought to reach the largest possible audience during the evening hours
  • The length and structure of television programs were often determined by the needs of advertisers, with half-hour and hour-long formats becoming standard

Social and cultural impact

• Television had a profound impact on American society and culture in its early years, reshaping family life, social norms, and national identity
• As the medium grew in popularity and accessibility, it became a powerful force in shaping public opinion, popular culture, and consumer behavior
• The social and cultural impact of early television laid the foundation for the medium's ongoing influence and relevance in the decades to come

Television's influence on family life

• The introduction of television into American homes in the 1950s had a significant impact on family dynamics and leisure activities
• Families began to gather around the television set in the evening, replacing other forms of entertainment and social interaction
  • The concept of the "TV dinner" emerged as families ate meals while watching television
• Television programming became a shared experience for families, with popular shows like "I Love Lucy" (CBS) and "The Ed Sullivan Show" (CBS) becoming cultural touchstones
• The influence of television on family life also raised concerns about the medium's potential impact on children and the erosion of traditional family values

Role in shaping national identity

• Early television played a significant role in shaping American national identity and cultural values
• News and public affairs programming, such as "See It Now" (CBS) and "The Huntley-Brinkley Report" (NBC), helped to create a shared national narrative and informed public opinion on important issues
  • The televised Nixon-Kennedy debates in 1960 demonstrated the power of television to influence political discourse and electoral outcomes
• Popular entertainment programs, such as "The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet" (ABC) and "Leave It to Beaver" (CBS/ABC), presented idealized versions of American family life and reinforced traditional gender roles and social norms
• Television also played a role in shaping consumer culture and creating a shared experience of Americana through advertising and product placement

Representation of minorities in early TV

• Early television programming often reflected the racial and ethnic stereotypes prevalent in American society at the time
• Minority characters were frequently portrayed in stereotypical or demeaning roles, if they were represented at all
  • The sitcom "Amos 'n' Andy" (CBS) featured white actors portraying African American characters in a manner that perpetuated negative stereotypes
• The lack of diverse representation in early television programming led to criticism and calls for greater inclusion and accuracy in the portrayal of minority groups
  • The NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) campaigned against the stereotypical portrayal of African Americans in shows like "Amos 'n' Andy"
• As the civil rights movement gained momentum in the 1950s and 1960s, some programs began to feature more positive and nuanced representations of minority characters
  • "I Spy" (NBC) featured Bill Cosby as the first African American lead in a dramatic series, breaking barriers and challenging stereotypes

Technical limitations and advancements

• The early years of television were marked by significant technical limitations that influenced the production and viewing experience
• As the technology improved over time, advancements in broadcasting, picture quality, and recording capabilities transformed the medium and expanded its creative possibilities
• The ongoing evolution of television technology laid the foundation for the high-quality, immersive viewing experiences that audiences enjoy today

Black-and-white vs color broadcasting

• Early television broadcasting was exclusively in black-and-white due to technical limitations and the high cost of color technology
• The first color television system, called NTSC (National Television System Committee), was introduced in the United States in 1953
  • NBC began broadcasting select programs in color that year, including "The Colgate Comedy Hour" and "The Kraft Television Theatre"
• The adoption of color television was gradual, as the high cost of color sets and the limited availability of color programming slowed consumer uptake
  • By 1960, only about 1% of American households had color television sets
• As color programming increased and the price of color sets decreased, color television became more widespread
  • By 1972, half of all television households in the United States had color sets

Improvements in picture quality

• Early television broadcasts were characterized by low resolution, poor contrast, and flickering images due to technical limitations
• Improvements in camera technology, transmission standards, and display devices led to gradual enhancements in picture quality over time
  • The introduction of the 525-line broadcast standard in 1941 improved image resolution and reduced flickering
  • The development of better cathode ray tubes (CRTs) and electronic circuitry in television sets enhanced contrast and brightness
• The introduction of color broadcasting also brought improvements in picture quality, as the NTSC system provided a more detailed and vibrant image than black-and-white
• Despite these advancements, early television picture quality remained inferior to film and would not rival modern high-definition standards until much later

Introduction of videotape technology

• The development of videotape technology in the 1950s revolutionized television production and broadcasting
• Prior to videotape, live broadcasts and kinescope recordings (filmed recordings of live television broadcasts) were the only options for capturing and preserving television content
  • Kinescopes were of lower quality than live broadcasts and were expensive and time-consuming to produce
• The first practical videotape recorder, the Ampex VR-1000, was introduced in 1956
  • Videotape allowed for the recording, editing, and rebroadcasting of television content without the loss of quality associated with kinescopes
• The adoption of videotape technology had a significant impact on television production and distribution
  • Programs could be recorded in advance, allowing for multiple takes, more complex editing, and a more polished final product
  • Videotape also facilitated the syndication of programs, as shows could be easily distributed to local stations for rebroadcast
• The introduction of videotape laid the foundation for the pre-recorded, post-produced television content that dominates the medium today

Government regulation and policies

• The early years of television in the United States were marked by the development of government regulations and policies that shaped the medium's growth and content
• The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) played a central role in overseeing the television industry, establishing technical standards, allocating broadcast frequencies, and regulating content
• The evolution of government regulation and policies in the early television era laid the foundation for the ongoing relationship between the television industry and federal authorities

Establishment of the FCC

• The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was established by the Communications Act of 1934 to regulate interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable
• The FCC's mandate included the allocation of broadcast frequencies, the establishment of technical standards, and the regulation of content to serve the "public interest, convenience, and necessity"
  • The FCC's authority to regulate content was based on the scarcity of broadcast frequencies and the idea that the airwaves were a public resource
• The FCC's role in television regulation began in earnest with the commercial licensing of television stations in the late 1940s
  • The FCC established rules for the allocation of television broadcast frequencies, the technical standards for television broadcasting, and the criteria for granting television station licenses

Spectrum allocation for television

• One of the FCC's primary responsibilities in the early television era was the allocation of broadcast frequencies for television stations
• The FCC initially allocated television broadcasting to the VHF (Very High Frequency) spectrum, which included channels 2 through 13
  • The first television station licenses were granted in 1941, but the outbreak of World War II halted the expansion of television broadcasting
• After the war, the demand for television station licenses increased rapidly, leading to concerns about interference and the scarcity of available frequencies
  • In 1952, the FCC issued the Sixth Report and Order, which allocated additional frequencies for television broadcasting in the UHF (Ultra High Frequency) spectrum, including channels 14 through 83
• The allocation of television broadcast frequencies had a significant impact on the growth and structure of the television industry
  • The limited number of VHF channels in each market led to the dominance of the three major networks (NBC, CBS, and ABC) and the affiliate system
  • The UHF spectrum initially suffered from technical limitations and lower audience penetration, hindering the growth of independent stations and non-network programming

Censorship and content restrictions

• The FCC's authority to regulate television content in the public interest led to the development of censorship and content restrictions in the early television era
• The FCC's content regulations were primarily focuse