10.1 The evolution of American urban planning

American urban planning has evolved significantly since colonial times. From William Penn's grid system in Philadelphia to the City Beautiful movement and modernist approaches, planners have shaped our cities' growth and design.

Today, urban planning focuses on sustainability, walkability, and community engagement. New Urbanism, Smart Growth, and resilient city planning address contemporary challenges like sprawl, climate change, and social equity in urban development.

Urban Planning in the US

Colonial and Early American Urban Planning

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• William Penn introduced the grid system in Philadelphia in 1682, heavily influenced by European models
• Grid system provided an orderly layout for streets and parcels of land
• Other colonial cities adopted similar grid patterns (New York, Savannah)
• Early American cities often featured central public squares or commons (Boston Common)
• Thomas Jefferson proposed an ideal grid-based city plan for Washington D.C. in 1791
  • L'Enfant's final design incorporated diagonal avenues and public spaces

Urban Planning Movements in the 19th and Early 20th Centuries

• City Beautiful movement emerged in the late 19th century
  • Emphasized monumental grandeur and aesthetic harmony in urban design
  • 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago showcased City Beautiful principles
  • Influenced civic center designs across the US (San Francisco, Denver)
• Garden City movement introduced by Ebenezer Howard in 1898
  • Proposed self-contained communities surrounded by greenbelts
  • Influenced American suburban development in the early 20th century
  • Radburn, New Jersey (1929) incorporated Garden City concepts
• Modernist planning gained prominence in the mid-20th century
  • Championed by figures like Le Corbusier
  • Promoted functional zoning and high-rise buildings
  • Significantly impacted American urban renewal projects (Pruitt-Igoe in St. Louis)

Contemporary Urban Planning Approaches

• New Urbanism movement emerged in the 1980s
  • Advocated for walkable neighborhoods and mixed-use development
  • Promoted sustainable design principles as a response to urban sprawl
  • Seaside, Florida (1981) exemplifies New Urbanist design
• Smart Growth strategies developed in the late 20th century
  • Focus on compact, transit-oriented development
  • Aim to preserve open spaces and combat suburban expansion
  • Portland, Oregon implemented urban growth boundaries to control sprawl
• Sustainable urban development emphasizes environmental considerations
  • Green building practices and LEED certification
  • Integration of renewable energy systems in urban planning
  • Cities like Seattle and Chicago have implemented green roof programs

Industrialization and Urban Growth

Impact of Industrial Revolution on Urban Centers

• 19th century Industrial Revolution led to rapid urbanization
  • Factories attracted large populations to cities
  • Created dense, often overcrowded urban centers
  • Cities like Pittsburgh and Detroit experienced explosive growth
• Urban infrastructure struggled to keep pace with population growth
  • Inadequate sanitation systems led to public health crises
  • Tenement housing emerged to accommodate workers (New York's Lower East Side)
• Social reformers advocated for improved living conditions
  • Jacob Riis documented tenement conditions in "How the Other Half Lives" (1890)
  • Settlement house movement established community centers (Hull House in Chicago)

Transportation Advancements and Urban Expansion

• Streetcar systems in the late 19th century facilitated suburban growth
  • Allowed for the expansion of cities beyond their core
  • Created "streetcar suburbs" (Brookline, Massachusetts)
• Rise of the automobile in the early 20th century altered urban form
  • Led to sprawling development patterns
  • Resulted in the creation of extensive highway systems
• Interstate Highway Act of 1956 transformed American cities
  • Facilitated suburbanization and long-distance commuting
  • Often divided urban neighborhoods (Cross-Bronx Expressway in New York)
• Decline of public transit in mid-20th century
  • Many cities dismantled streetcar systems in favor of buses
  • Automobile-centric planning dominated urban development

Post-Industrial Urban Challenges and Opportunities

• Decline of heavy industry in the late 20th century led to "shrinking cities"
  • Rust Belt cities faced population loss and economic challenges
  • Detroit's population declined from 1.8 million in 1950 to 639,000 in 2020
• Urban revitalization efforts focused on adaptive reuse
  • Conversion of industrial buildings into lofts and cultural spaces
  • High Line in New York City transformed an abandoned rail line into a park
• Digital economy and remote work reshaping urban dynamics in 21st century
  • Potentially reducing the need for traditional central business districts
  • Altering commuting patterns and residential preferences
  • Rise of "innovation districts" in cities (Kendall Square in Cambridge, MA)

Zoning and Urban Development

Evolution of Zoning Laws in the United States

• Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co. (1926) established constitutionality of zoning laws
  • Allowed cities to regulate land use and development patterns
  • Set precedent for separation of incompatible land uses
• Euclidean zoning became the dominant form of zoning in the US
  • Separates land uses into distinct districts (residential, commercial, industrial)
  • Significantly influenced urban spatial organization
  • Created more uniform and predictable development patterns
• Form-based codes developed in the late 20th century
  • Focus on regulating the physical form of buildings rather than land use
  • Aim to create more cohesive urban environments
  • Miami 21 zoning code (2009) is a prominent example of form-based code

Building Codes and Urban Design Standards

• International Code Council develops widely adopted building codes
  • Establish standards for construction, safety, and accessibility
  • Shape the physical characteristics of urban structures
  • Updated regularly to incorporate new technologies and safety measures
• Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) mandated accessibility standards
  • Influenced urban design to accommodate people with disabilities
  • Required features like curb cuts and accessible entrances
• Green building standards gaining prominence
  • LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certification
  • Encourage sustainable design and construction practices
  • Cities like San Francisco require LEED certification for new buildings

Specialized Zoning and Development Regulations

• Inclusionary zoning policies implemented in some cities
  • Require developers to include affordable housing units in new developments
  • Address issues of housing equity and social integration
  • Montgomery County, Maryland pioneered inclusionary zoning in 1974
• Historic preservation ordinances established in many cities
  • Maintain architectural character and cultural heritage
  • Influence the evolution of urban landscapes
  • New Orleans' Vieux Carré Commission (1925) is one of the oldest in the US
• Design review processes regulate aesthetic aspects of development
  • Aim to maintain community character and visual cohesion
  • Often applied in historic districts or areas of special significance
  • Santa Fe, New Mexico's stringent design guidelines maintain its distinctive style

Urban Planning Movements and Theories

Critiques of Modernist Planning and Community-Focused Approaches

• Jane Jacobs' "The Death and Life of Great American Cities" (1961) sparked reassessment of urban renewal practices
  • Promoted mixed-use, pedestrian-friendly neighborhoods
  • Emphasized importance of "eyes on the street" for urban safety
  • Influenced preservation of neighborhoods like Greenwich Village in New York
• Kevin Lynch's "The Image of the City" (1960) introduced concept of "imageability"
  • Emphasized importance of legible urban environments and memorable landmarks
  • Identified five elements of city image: paths, edges, districts, nodes, landmarks
  • Influenced urban design practices to create more navigable and memorable cities
• Advocacy planning movement pioneered by Paul Davidoff in the 1960s
  • Promoted community participation and social equity in urban planning processes
  • Led to more inclusive decision-making in urban development
  • Resulted in the establishment of community development corporations (CDCs)

Contemporary Urban Planning Theories and Strategies

• Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) popularized by Peter Calthorpe in the 1990s
  • Promotes high-density, mixed-use development around public transportation hubs
  • Aims to reduce car dependency and increase public transit usage
  • Arlington, Virginia's Rosslyn-Ballston corridor is a successful TOD example
• "Broken windows theory" introduced by James Q. Wilson and George L. Kelling in 1982
  • Impacted urban policing and maintenance strategies
  • Emphasized addressing minor disorders to prevent more serious crime
  • Influenced New York City's quality-of-life initiatives in the 1990s
• Richard Florida's "creative class" theory influenced urban economic development
  • Cities implemented policies to attract knowledge workers and foster innovation
  • Encouraged development of amenities and cultural attractions
  • Critics argue it contributed to gentrification and displacement

Emerging Trends in Urban Planning

• Tactical urbanism gained popularity in the 2010s
  • Involves small-scale, often temporary interventions to improve urban spaces
  • Examples include parklets, pop-up bike lanes, and guerrilla gardening
  • San Francisco's Pavement to Parks program formalized tactical urbanism approaches
• Resilient city planning addresses climate change and natural disasters
  • Focuses on adapting urban infrastructure to environmental challenges
  • Incorporates green infrastructure for stormwater management
  • New Orleans' post-Katrina planning emphasizes resilience and water management
• Smart city technologies integrate data and technology into urban planning
  • Use of sensors and data analytics to optimize city operations
  • Implementation of smart grids for energy management
  • Barcelona's Smart City strategy incorporates various technological initiatives