10.3 Hindu influence on Indian painting and sculpture

Hindu influence on Indian art is profound, shaping painting and sculpture for millennia. Deities, mythological scenes, and spiritual concepts are vividly brought to life through diverse artistic styles and techniques across regions.

From intricate temple carvings to delicate miniature paintings, Hindu themes permeate Indian visual culture. Artists skillfully blend religious symbolism with aesthetic beauty, creating works that inspire devotion and showcase India's rich artistic heritage.

Hindu Deities in Indian Art

The Hindu Trinity

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• The Hindu trinity consists of Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer, who are frequently depicted in sculpture and painting
• Brahma is often shown with four heads facing different directions, representing the four Vedas and the creation of the universe
• Vishnu is depicted reclining on the cosmic serpent Shesha, or standing holding his attributes the conch, discus, mace and lotus
• Shiva is portrayed in meditative poses, dancing the tandava, or with his consort Parvati and sons Ganesha and Kartikeya (Nataraja, Ardhanarishvara)

Vishnu's Avatars and Their Consorts

• Avatars of Vishnu like Krishna and Rama and their consorts like Radha and Sita are common subjects in Hindu art, often depicting scenes from epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata
• Krishna is shown as a mischievous child stealing butter, as a divine lover playing the flute for gopis, or as a prince giving spiritual counsel in the Bhagavad Gita
• Rama is depicted as an ideal king, husband and hero, exemplifying dharma and battling the demon king Ravana to rescue his wife Sita (Pattachitra, Rajput paintings)
• The love between Radha and Krishna and Rama and Sita symbolizes the devotional relationship between the human soul and the divine

The Goddess and Shiva in Art

• The Goddess in her various forms like Durga, Kali, Lakshmi and Saraswati is an important theme, embodying divine feminine power or Shakti
• Durga is shown as a warrior goddess riding a lion or tiger, defeating the buffalo demon Mahishasura, symbolizing the battle against evil (Durga Puja pandals)
• Kali is depicted with dark skin, multiple arms holding weapons, wearing a garland of skulls, representing time, death and transformation
• Lakshmi and Saraswati are benevolent goddesses bestowing prosperity, wealth, knowledge and the arts, often flanking their consorts Vishnu and Brahma
• Shiva is depicted in various iconic forms like Nataraja, the cosmic dancer, and in narrative scenes with his consort Parvati and sons Ganesha and Kartikeya
• As Nataraja, Shiva performs the tandava dance within a ring of fire, symbolizing the cycles of creation, preservation and destruction (Chola bronzes)
• Ganesha, the elephant-headed remover of obstacles, and Kartikeya, the commander of the gods' armies, are popular deities depicted in art

Mythological Scenes and Stories

• Sculptural reliefs and paintings often portray key mythological scenes and stories associated with the deities, such as Krishna lifting Mount Govardhan or Rama's battle with Ravana
• The Bhagavata Purana and other texts provide the basis for many narrative scenes of Krishna's life, such as his childhood pranks or romances with gopis (Tanjore paintings)
• Episodes from the Ramayana are frequently depicted, including Rama breaking the bow to win Sita's hand, the abduction of Sita, and Hanuman's flight to Lanka (Pahari miniatures)
• Shiva's marriage to Parvati, Ganesha's birth, and the descent of the Ganga are popular Shaivite themes in temple sculpture and painting

Religious Patronage in Indian Art

Royal and Elite Patronage

• Rulers, wealthy merchants and devotional sects commissioned artists to create sculptures, murals and illustrated manuscripts for temples, monasteries and private worship
• Royal patronage of artists and architects led to the development of distinctive regional styles and schools of Hindu art
• The Pallava, Chola, Hoysala and Vijayanagara dynasties sponsored major temple building and sculptural programs in South India (Mamallapuram, Thanjavur, Belur)
• Mughal, Rajput and Pahari courts commissioned delicate miniature paintings on religious themes for private albums and manuscripts (Bhagavata Purana, Gita Govinda)
• Merchants and guilds funded the creation of bronze sculptures, stone reliefs and murals for temples as acts of devotion and merit (Jain Dilwara temples)

Art as Devotional Practice

• Artistic production was seen as an act of religious devotion and merit. Patrons earned spiritual benefit through sponsoring art
• Commissioning a temple, icon or painting was believed to gain the patron divine favor and blessings in this life and the next
• Some sculptures and paintings were ritually consecrated through ceremonies investing them with the actual presence of the deity
• Artists performed meditative and ritual practices to purify themselves before creating sacred images
• Donations of jewels, gold and silver to adorn sculptural icons was an important aspect of patronage as devotional practice (Tirupati temple treasury)

Artist Guilds and Lineages

• Guilds of artists were often hereditary and attached to particular temples or regions under patronage
• Artistic knowledge and techniques were passed down through family lineages and apprenticeships within the guilds
• The guilds set standards for iconography, proportion and style to ensure conformity with textual descriptions and regional traditions
• Artists enjoyed royal protection and special privileges but also worked within the constraints of collective guild styles rather than individual creativity
• Some guilds migrated between regions, spreading stylistic and iconographic conventions to new areas under different patrons (Bronze casters of Swamimalai)

Iconography and Style in Hindu Art

Attributes and Symbols

• Hindu deities are identified through attributes they hold, vehicles they ride, and symbolic iconographic features described in sacred texts
• Vishnu holds the conch, discus, mace and lotus and rides the eagle Garuda. Shiva holds the trident and drum and rides the bull Nandi
• Goddesses are associated with animals like the lion, tiger, owl and swan, and hold items like the lotus, vina, and cornucopia (Durga's weapons, Saraswati's vina)
• Symbolic colors are used to represent divine qualities, such as blue for Vishnu's cosmic nature, white for Saraswati's purity, and red for Durga's power
• Plants, trees and natural elements also have symbolic meaning, like the lotus of spiritual realization and the linga stone representing Shiva

Multiple Limbs and Heads

• Multiple arms and heads symbolize the deity's superhuman power and omniscience. Their poses or asanas convey specific meanings
• Deities typically have two to four arms, though fierce forms like Durga or Kali may have up to eighteen, each holding a symbolic weapon or object
• Multiple heads face different directions, perceiving all things. Brahma has four heads, while Shiva may have three or five
• The position and gestures of the arms and hands communicate particular actions and intentions described in texts (Nataraja's dance poses, Vishnu's Vishvarupa)
• Seated and standing asanas convey states like meditation, royal ease, or readiness for battle, often in conjunction with symbolic hand gestures or mudras

Dress and Ornamentation

• Deities are adorned with elaborate jewelry, garments and crowns signifying their divine status. The third eye on the forehead represents spiritual wisdom
• Crowns are typically tall conical or cylindrical shapes adorned with jewels, diadems and floral motifs varying by region and time period
• Deities wear sacred threads, necklaces and garlands specific to their iconography, such as Shiva's rudraksha beads or Vishnu's garland of victory (Vaijayanti)
• Goddesses are adorned with elaborate hairstyles, anklets, girdles and earrings. Their saris are draped and ornamented according to regional fashions (Madurai Meenakshi)
• Ornaments and garments help distinguish the identity and spiritual status of the deity and are replicated in the dress of temple statuary

Figural Styles and Representation

• Figural styles range from idealized, sensual human forms to abstract, geometric representations, often dictated by regional styles and time periods
• The tribhanga or "three bends" pose, with the head, torso and hips flexed in different directions, is a common idealized figural type (Chola bronzes)
• Yakshis, apsaras and other semi-divine beings are depicted with exaggerated feminine proportions symbolizing fertility and auspiciousness (Sanchi toranas)
• In some tantric and folk styles, deities have ambiguous or androgynous features blurring distinctions between god and goddess (Ardhanarishvara)
• Geometric and non-figural representations like the Shiva linga or yoni suggest the deity's transcendence of physical form altogether

Mudras and Postures

• Symbolic hand gestures or mudras and body postures convey specific moods, actions and spiritual states described in religious literature
• Over 50 mudras are depicted in sculpture and painting, each with a codified meaning such as protection, meditation, teaching or reassurance
• The abhaya mudra, with the open palm facing outward, represents the dispelling of fear and the deity's approachability (Ajanta bodhisattvas)
• Seated postures like padmasana (lotus position) and lalitasana (royal ease) signify meditative absorption and spiritual authority
• Standing postures communicate heroic readiness and the subjugation of demonic forces, as in Vishnu's Trivikrama avatar striding across the universe

Hindu Philosophy and Artistic Expression

Darshan and Sacred Viewing

• The principle of darshan, or auspicious viewing of the divine image, is central to the design and placement of Hindu sculptures and paintings in temples and shrines
• Devotees make eye contact with the consecrated image to receive the deity's blessings and grace. The deity is also believed to view the devotee
• Temple architecture orchestrates the experience of darshan through progressive revelation of the deity from outer gopurams to the inner sanctum (Madurai Meenakshi temple)
• Sculptures are placed at eye level or slightly above, while paintings are positioned to facilitate meditation and ritual viewing (Deogarh Dashavatara temple)
• Subsidiary figures of saints, attendants and musicians create a divine court enhancing the royal presentation of the primary deity

Karma, Dharma and Liberation

• Concepts of karma, dharma, moksha and samsara are allegorically represented through mythological scenes and visual narratives
• The Bhagavad Gita, depicted in miniature paintings, presents a dialogue on dharma, yoga and transcendence of the cycle of rebirth (Pahari Gita Govinda series)
• Sculptural reliefs like Arjuna's Penance illustrate moral dilemmas and the path of righteous action according to dharma (Mamallapuram)
• The concept of moksha or liberation is represented through images of renunciant figures, stupas and the Buddha's parinirvana scene (Ajanta cave paintings)
• Samsara, the endless cycle of death and rebirth, is depicted through the wheel of existence, with humans, animals and gods bound by karma (Tibetan thangkas)

Bhakti and Devotional Love

• The relationship between the devotee and the divine is expressed through depictions of bhakti or loving devotion, as in popular images of Krishna playing the flute for gopis
• Devotional poetry like the Gitagovinda describes the love between Radha and Krishna as an allegory for the union of the human soul with god
• Sculptural reliefs and paintings depict devotees in postures of adoration, service and ecstatic communion with enshrined deities (Khajuraho temples)
• Saints and poet-mystics are portrayed experiencing direct revelation of the divine through rapturous states induced by kirtan and meditation (Mirabai, Chaitanya)
• Bhakti images encourage the viewer's emotional and physical participation in the depicted scene, dissolving barriers between human and divine

Shiva Nataraja and Cosmic Dance

• Shiva Nataraja's cosmic dance represents the dynamic cosmic balance of creation and destruction, while the linga symbolizes the generative essence of the universe
• The ring of fire represents the cycles of samsara, while Shiva's calm expression in the midst conveys spiritual liberation beyond the flames of desire
• His upper right hand holds a drum symbolizing the primordial creative sound, while the upper left hand holds a flame signifying dissolution
• The lower right hand makes the abhaya mudra of reassurance, while the left points down to the uplifted foot, the path of salvation
• The dwarf of ignorance is trampled underfoot, while the river goddess Ganga flows from Shiva's matted locks, representing divine grace (Chola Natarajas)

Tantric Art and Ritual

• Tantric art uses abstract yantras, mandalas and symbolic imagery of divine union to map esoteric spiritual concepts and states of consciousness
• Yantras are geometric designs radiating from a central point, representing the unfolding of divine energy and used as focal points for meditation (Sri Yantra)
• Mandalas are circular compositions with concentric rings of deities, used for ritual visualization and initiation (Buddhist Kalachakra mandala)
• Male and female deities are shown in sexual union, representing the blissful non-duality of Shiva and Shakti, consciousness and power (Kangra paintings)
• Symbolic objects like skulls, cremation pyres and severed heads signify the transcendence of death and attachment (Kapalika tantric art)
• Tantric art is used as a esoteric means of invoking the deity's presence and power through complex visualization and ritual techniques (Vajrayana Buddhist art)