10.2 Indexicals and demonstratives

Indexicals and demonstratives are essential tools in language that rely on context for meaning. These words, like "I," "you," "this," and "that," help us efficiently refer to people, places, and things without long explanations.

Understanding how indexicals and demonstratives work is crucial for effective communication. They encode information about the speech situation, guiding listeners to the intended referent. This process involves interpreting linguistic cues and contextual information to resolve references accurately.

Indexicals and Demonstratives

Properties of indexicals and demonstratives

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• Deictic expressions depend on context for interpretation
  • Indexicals are words that directly refer to the context (I, you, here, now, today, yesterday, tomorrow)
  • Demonstratives are words that point to specific entities in the context (this, that, these, those)
• Refer to entities in the context of the utterance
  • Referent can be a person (speaker, addressee), place (location), time (present, past, future), or object (near or far)
• Encode contextual information about the speech situation
  • Speaker, addressee, location, and time of the utterance are encoded in the meaning
• Guide the hearer's attention to the intended referent
  • Help the hearer identify the specific entity being referred to in the context
• Essential for efficient communication
  • Allow speakers to refer to entities without using full descriptions (names, detailed explanations)

Contextual encoding in language

• Indexicals encode the roles of speech participants and spatiotemporal context
  • "I" encodes the speaker's role and refers to the person producing the utterance
  • "You" encodes the addressee's role and refers to the person being spoken to
  • "Here" and "now" encode the location and time of the utterance
• Demonstratives encode the relative distance and accessibility of the referent
  • "This" and "these" encode proximity and refer to entities near or accessible to the speaker
  • "That" and "those" encode distance and refer to entities far or less accessible to the speaker
• Interpretation relies on shared context between speaker and hearer
  • Hearer must identify the relevant contextual elements to resolve the reference
• Accompanying gestures or pointing help guide the hearer's attention
  • Pointing to a specific object while saying "this" or "that" clarifies the intended referent

Pure indexicals vs demonstratives

• Pure indexicals have a fixed semantic meaning directly encoding context
  • "I" and "today" automatically refer to the speaker and the day of utterance
  • Referent is determined by context alone, no demonstration required
• Demonstratives have a flexible semantic meaning requiring demonstration
  • "This" and "that" require the speaker to point or gesture towards the intended referent
  • Referent is determined by speaker's intention and accompanying demonstration
• Pure indexicals are more constrained in interpretation
  • Limited flexibility in referent selection, determined by fixed contextual roles
• Demonstratives allow for more pragmatic flexibility
  • Speaker can choose among potential referents and guide the hearer's attention
• Choice between pure indexical and demonstrative conveys pragmatic information
  • Using a demonstrative instead of a pure indexical suggests contrast or emphasis on the referent

Reference resolution through indexicals

1. Identify relevant aspects of context
   • Speaker, addressee, location, time
2. Identify intended referent based on encoded context and demonstration
   • Use the semantic meaning of the indexical or demonstrative
   • Consider any accompanying gestures or pointing

• Guided by semantic meaning and pragmatic principles
  • Relevance: referent should be relevant to the current conversation
  • Cooperation: assume the speaker is being cooperative and informative
• Ambiguity or underspecification may require additional contextual cues
  • Hearer may need to rely on pragmatic reasoning to infer the intended referent
• Successful resolution integrates linguistic meaning with context and intentions
  • Hearer must combine the encoded meaning with the broader communicative context
  • Consider the speaker's likely communicative goals and intentions in using the expression