10.2 Slave trade and Middle Passage

The Atlantic slave trade, spanning over 400 years, forcibly transported millions of Africans to the Americas. Driven by European colonial labor demands, it connected Africa, Europe, and the Americas in a global trade system with far-reaching consequences.

European nations, starting with Portugal, dominated the slave trade. African kingdoms often collaborated, though exploited. The Middle Passage, the brutal journey across the Atlantic, resulted in high mortality rates. Upon arrival, slaves faced auctions, seasoning, and harsh plantation life.

Origins of African slave trade

• The African slave trade began in the 15th century and lasted for over 400 years, involving the forced transportation of millions of Africans to the Americas
• The slave trade was driven by the demand for labor in European colonies, particularly in the Caribbean and South America, where plantations required a large workforce
• The Atlantic slave trade was part of a larger system of global trade that connected Africa, Europe, and the Americas, and had significant economic, social, and political consequences for all three regions

European involvement in slave trade

Portuguese role in early slave trade

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• The Portuguese were the first Europeans to engage in the African slave trade, establishing trading posts along the West African coast in the 15th century
• Portuguese traders initially focused on acquiring gold and other commodities, but soon began to purchase enslaved Africans to work on sugar plantations in their Atlantic islands (São Tomé and Príncipe)
• The Portuguese crown monopolized the slave trade for much of the 16th century, supplying enslaved Africans to their own colonies in Brazil and to Spanish colonies in the Americas

Spanish use of African slaves

• The Spanish began to import African slaves to their American colonies in the early 16th century, as the indigenous population declined due to disease and overwork
• African slaves were initially used in gold and silver mines, but later became the primary labor force on sugar and tobacco plantations in the Spanish Caribbean (Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola)
• The Spanish relied on the asiento system, granting contracts to foreign merchants (mostly Portuguese) to supply slaves to their colonies

Dutch entry into slave trade

• The Dutch emerged as major participants in the Atlantic slave trade in the 17th century, after gaining independence from Spain and establishing colonies in the Americas (Suriname, Guyana, and the Dutch Caribbean islands)
• Dutch merchants, particularly the Dutch West India Company, became the primary suppliers of slaves to the Spanish colonies through the asiento system
• The Dutch also supplied slaves to their own colonies and to English and French colonies, and played a significant role in the expansion of the slave trade in the 17th and 18th centuries

English dominance of slave trade

• The English entered the slave trade in the mid-17th century, initially supplying slaves to their own colonies in the Caribbean (Barbados and Jamaica) and North America (Virginia and Maryland)
• The English slave trade expanded rapidly in the late 17th and 18th centuries, as the demand for labor on sugar and tobacco plantations increased
• The English became the dominant force in the Atlantic slave trade by the mid-18th century, supplying slaves to their own colonies and to other European colonies through the triangular trade system (manufactured goods from Europe to Africa, slaves from Africa to the Americas, and sugar and other commodities from the Americas to Europe)

African role in slave trade

African kingdoms vs European traders

• African kingdoms and states played a significant role in the slave trade, often collaborating with European traders to capture and sell slaves in exchange for European goods (firearms, textiles, and other manufactured items)
• Some African rulers, such as the kings of Dahomey and Asante, became wealthy and powerful through their involvement in the slave trade
• However, the relationship between African kingdoms and European traders was often unequal and exploitative, with Europeans using their superior military technology and economic power to dictate the terms of trade

Slave capture and transport

• Enslaved Africans were captured through various means, including warfare, kidnapping, and judicial punishment, and were often sold to European traders by African middlemen
• The process of capture and transport was brutal and traumatic, with many Africans dying from disease, starvation, and violence before even reaching the coast
• Enslaved Africans were held in coastal forts and dungeons before being loaded onto ships for the Middle Passage, the dangerous and often deadly journey across the Atlantic Ocean

The Middle Passage

Conditions on slave ships

• The conditions on slave ships during the Middle Passage were horrific, with enslaved Africans packed tightly into the holds of the ships, often chained together and forced to lie in their own filth
• Slaves were given minimal food and water, and were often subjected to physical and sexual abuse by the crew
• The lack of sanitation and ventilation on the ships led to the spread of diseases such as dysentery, smallpox, and yellow fever

Diseases and mortality rates

• The mortality rate during the Middle Passage was extremely high, with estimates ranging from 10-20% of enslaved Africans dying during the journey
• Diseases such as dysentery, smallpox, and yellow fever were the primary causes of death, along with starvation, dehydration, and suicide
• The mortality rate was even higher for children and the elderly, who were more vulnerable to the harsh conditions on the ships

Resistance and revolts

• Despite the brutal conditions on the slave ships, enslaved Africans often resisted their captivity through various means, including suicide, self-mutilation, and armed revolt
• There were numerous documented cases of slave revolts on ships during the Middle Passage, with some successful in taking control of the ship and returning to Africa or seeking refuge in other parts of the Americas
• The most famous slave revolt on a ship was the Amistad rebellion in 1839, in which a group of enslaved Africans took control of a Spanish ship and eventually won their freedom in the United States Supreme Court

Arrival in the Americas

Slave markets and auctions

• Upon arrival in the Americas, enslaved Africans were typically sold at slave markets and auctions, where they were inspected and purchased by plantation owners and other buyers
• Slave auctions were a brutal and dehumanizing process, with enslaved Africans often separated from their families and sold to the highest bidder
• The prices of slaves varied depending on factors such as age, gender, and physical condition, with young adult males typically commanding the highest prices

Seasoning process for new slaves

• After being purchased, new slaves often underwent a "seasoning" process, in which they were trained and acclimated to their new environment and the demands of plantation labor
• The seasoning process could last several months to a year, and often involved physical punishment, psychological conditioning, and the suppression of African cultural practices and identity
• Many slaves died during the seasoning process due to the harsh conditions, overwork, and the trauma of being separated from their families and communities

Slave distribution in colonies

• The distribution of slaves in the Americas varied depending on the region and the type of plantation economy
• In the Caribbean and Brazil, slaves were primarily used on sugar plantations, which required a large and constantly replenished labor force due to the high mortality rates
• In the southern colonies of British North America (later the United States), slaves were used primarily on tobacco and rice plantations, and later on cotton plantations after the invention of the cotton gin in the late 18th century
• In the northern colonies of British North America, slavery was less prevalent and was primarily used in domestic service and small-scale agriculture

Economic impact of slave trade

Profits for European countries

• The Atlantic slave trade was a highly profitable enterprise for European countries, particularly those with colonies in the Americas
• The profits from the slave trade helped to finance the Industrial Revolution in Europe, as well as the expansion of European empires and global trade networks
• The slave trade also generated significant tax revenue for European governments, which used the funds to finance military campaigns and other state expenses

Effects on African societies

• The Atlantic slave trade had a devastating impact on African societies, leading to the depopulation of entire regions and the destabilization of political and economic systems
• The demand for slaves led to increased warfare and raiding among African states, as well as the rise of predatory states that specialized in capturing and selling slaves
• The slave trade also led to the spread of diseases such as smallpox and measles, which had a devastating impact on African populations with no prior exposure or immunity

Significance to colonial economies

• The Atlantic slave trade was a critical component of the colonial economies in the Americas, particularly in the Caribbean and Brazil, where sugar production was the primary economic activity
• Slave labor was essential to the profitability of sugar plantations, which required a large and constantly replenished workforce due to the high mortality rates and the physically demanding nature of the work
• The profits from the slave trade and slave labor helped to finance the expansion of European colonies in the Americas, as well as the development of new industries such as rum production and shipbuilding

Abolition of slave trade

Early opposition to slave trade

• Opposition to the Atlantic slave trade began to emerge in the late 18th century, as Enlightenment ideas about human rights and natural law gained traction in Europe and the Americas
• Early abolitionists such as Granville Sharp and Thomas Clarkson in Britain, and Anthony Benezet and Benjamin Franklin in the United States, argued that the slave trade was morally wrong and violated the principles of Christianity and natural rights
• The Quakers were among the first religious groups to oppose the slave trade, and played a significant role in the early abolitionist movement on both sides of the Atlantic

British abolition in 1807

• In 1807, the British Parliament passed the Slave Trade Act, which prohibited the slave trade in the British Empire and made it illegal for British ships to transport slaves
• The act was the result of a long campaign by British abolitionists, who had been working to end the slave trade since the 1780s
• The British abolition of the slave trade was a significant milestone in the global abolitionist movement, and put pressure on other European countries to follow suit

Continuing illegal slave trade

• Despite the British abolition of the slave trade in 1807, the illegal slave trade continued for several decades, particularly by Spanish, Portuguese, and American ships
• The illegal slave trade was driven by the continuing demand for slave labor in the Americas, particularly in Cuba and Brazil, where sugar production was still expanding
• The British Navy played a significant role in suppressing the illegal slave trade, by patrolling the African coast and intercepting slave ships, but the trade continued until the mid-19th century

Final suppression efforts

• The final suppression of the Atlantic slave trade came in the mid-19th century, as a result of a combination of factors, including the rise of abolitionist movements in the Americas, the decline of the sugar industry, and the increasing use of indentured labor from Asia
• In 1833, the British Parliament passed the Slavery Abolition Act, which abolished slavery throughout the British Empire, and put pressure on other European countries to do the same
• The United States banned the importation of slaves in 1808, but slavery itself was not abolished until the end of the Civil War in 1865
• Brazil was the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery, in 1888, after a long and gradual process of emancipation that began in the 1850s