11.2 The Battle of Hastings and its immediate aftermath

The Battle of Hastings in 1066 was a turning point in English history. William of Normandy's victory over King Harold marked the end of Anglo-Saxon rule and ushered in a new era of Norman control.

The battle's outcome had far-reaching consequences. It led to major changes in England's political structure, language, and culture, setting the stage for the medieval period and shaping the country's future development.

Battle of Hastings: Key Events and Tactics

Armies and Battlefield

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• The Battle of Hastings took place on October 14, 1066 near the town of Hastings in southern England between the Norman-French army of Duke William II of Normandy and the English army under Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson
• Harold's army took up a defensive position on Senlac Hill, forming a shield wall (a tight formation of men holding shields overlapping to create a solid wall of defense)
• William's army included a mix of infantry, cavalry, and archers, while Harold's army was entirely infantry

Norman Attacks and Tactics

• William's army attacked with infantry, cavalry and archers but were initially unable to break the Anglo-Saxon shield wall due to the strong defensive position on the hill and the discipline of the English troops
• The Normans used the tactic of feigned flight, pretending to retreat and then turning on the pursuing English who had broken formation to chase them
• This tactic of feigned retreat proved decisive in breaking the English shield wall, allowing the Norman cavalry to inflict heavy casualties

Death of Harold and Norman Victory

• According to legend and the Bayeux Tapestry (a contemporary embroidered cloth depicting the events), Harold was killed late in the battle by an arrow through his eye, although the accuracy of this account is debated by historians
• The death of Harold and many of his top nobles led to the collapse of the English army and a decisive victory for William
• The battle lasted from about 9 am to dusk, a long and bloody struggle that ultimately changed the course of English history

William's Victory vs Harold's Defeat

Harold's Disadvantages

• Harold had just fought and defeated the Norwegian King Harald Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in the north of England on September 25, forcing his army to make an exhausting forced march of over 200 miles to meet William in the south
• The English army was entirely infantry, lacking the cavalry and archers that proved decisive for the Normans
• Some of Harold's troops were fyrd, the part-time Anglo-Saxon militia who, while brave, lacked the training and equipment of professional soldiers like many of William's battle-hardened mercenaries

William's Advantages

• William was a highly experienced military commander who had fought many battles, whereas Harold had more limited experience leading an army
• The Norman army had a mix of infantry, cavalry, and archers, with the cavalry and archers able to thin the English ranks and exploit breakthroughs
• The Normans may have substantially outnumbered the English, although exact figures are unknown (historian David Howarth estimates William had 7,000-8,000 men, Harold 5,000-7,000)
• William's tactical acumen proved superior, especially his use of the feigned flight tactic to draw the English out of their strong defensive position

Norman Victory: Consequences for England

Political and Social Changes

• The battle marked the beginning of the Norman conquest of England, with the deaths of Harold and most of the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy greatly weakening English resistance
• William moved quickly to consolidate his power, securing key towns like Dover, Canterbury, and Winchester before marching on London where the remaining English leaders submitted to him at Berkhamsted in early December
• The Norman victory brought a new French-speaking aristocracy to England, replacing the Anglo-Saxon elite (many Anglo-Saxon nobles fled into exile, had their lands confiscated, or were killed)

Military and Cultural Impact

• William began a widespread program of castle-building across England to secure Norman rule, with these motte-and-bailey castles (wooden or stone keeps on raised earthworks called mottes, surrounded by enclosed courtyards called baileys) asserting Norman power
• While William initially left many Anglo-Saxon administrative systems in place, the arrival of the Normans brought major changes in language (French became the language of the elite), culture, architecture (Romanesque style), and law to England over the following decades
• The Norman Conquest is considered a defining event in English history, marking the end of the Anglo-Saxon period and the beginning of the Middle Ages in England

William's Coronation as King

Coronation Ceremony

• William was crowned King of England on Christmas Day, 1066 at Westminster Abbey, with the ceremony conducted by Ealdred, the Archbishop of York
• The coronation was a lavish affair intended to present William as the legitimate ruler of England, succeeding Edward the Confessor (William argued that Edward had promised him the throne years earlier)
• During the ceremony, the congregation was asked in English and in French if they would accept William as king. When the crowd shouted their approval, Norman guards outside mistook the shouts for a rebellion and set fire to nearby houses, causing chaos

Symbolism and Legitimacy

• Despite the confusion, the coronation continued with William taking the traditional coronation oath, promising to protect the Church, prevent disorder, and rule with justice
• He received the crown, sceptre, and orb, important symbols of royal authority that legitimized his rule
• The coronation conferred legitimacy on William's rule in the eyes of the Church and projected an image of continuity, even though the Normans had conquered England by force
• This coronation marked the beginning of a new era in English history, with the Norman dynasty replacing the Anglo-Saxon kings and introducing new continental influences that would shape England's future development