11.5 European performance traditions

European performance traditions have shaped global theater for centuries. From ancient Greek plays to Italian commedia dell'arte and French ballet, these art forms have influenced storytelling, acting, and dance worldwide.

These traditions reflect Europe's cultural, religious, and political shifts. They've evolved from religious rituals to professional entertainment, adapting to changing social norms and technological advances. Their impact continues to resonate in modern performance arts.

European Performance Traditions: A Historical Journey

Origins and Development of Key Genres

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• Greek theater emerged in Athens around the 6th century BCE as part of religious festivals honoring Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility
  • Evolved from choral performances called dithyrambs into fully staged plays with actors and dialogue
  • Consisted of three main genres: tragedy (mythological or historical themes), comedy (satirized contemporary society), and satyr plays (bawdy humor and mythological creatures)
• Commedia dell'arte originated in Italy during the 16th century as a form of improvisational theater performed by professional troupes
  • Featured stock characters, such as the wily servant Arlecchino and the miserly Pantalone, who wore distinctive masks and costumes
  • Plots revolved around love intrigues, mistaken identities, and clever schemes, often involving acrobatics and physical comedy
  • Spread throughout Europe and influenced playwrights like Shakespeare (England) and Molière (France)
• Ballet emerged in the Italian Renaissance courts of the 15th and 16th centuries as a stylized form of social dancing
  • Later developed into a professional art form in France under the patronage of King Louis XIV, who founded the Académie Royale de Danse in 1661
  • Incorporated elements of music, dance, and theater to tell stories and express emotions through codified movements and positions
  • Reached its classical form in the 19th century with works like "Swan Lake" and "The Nutcracker" (Tchaikovsky)

Religious and Political Influences on Theater

• Greek theater reflected the democratic values of Athens, with plays that explored political and moral issues
  • Also served a religious function as part of festivals honoring Dionysus
• Rise of Christianity in Europe led to the suppression of theater during the Middle Ages, as it was seen as a pagan and immoral activity
  • Religious dramas, such as mystery plays (biblical stories) and morality plays (moral lessons), emerged as a way to teach Christian values
• French Revolution and the Enlightenment led to changes in theater, with a focus on realism and social commentary
  • Playwrights like Ibsen (Norway) and Chekhov (Russia) explored the psychological and moral conflicts of ordinary people

Aesthetic Features of European Performance

Visual and Auditory Elements

• Greek theater was characterized by its use of masks, which allowed a small number of actors to play multiple roles
  • Performances took place in large, open-air amphitheaters with a circular orchestra for the chorus and a raised stage for the actors
• Commedia dell'arte relied on improvisation within a set framework of scenarios and character types
  • Actors wore distinctive masks that exaggerated facial features and conveyed their characters' personalities
• Ballet is characterized by its use of precise, codified movements and positions
  • Emphasizes grace, elegance, and storytelling through movement
  • Performances often feature elaborate costumes, sets, and orchestral music (live accompaniment)

Structure and Narrative Conventions

• Greek plays followed a strict structure, with a prologue, episodes, and a chorus that commented on the action
  • Often dealt with themes of fate, justice, and the relationship between humans and gods
• Commedia dell'arte performances were known for their physicality, with acrobatics, slapstick, and bawdy humor
  • Influenced the development of pantomime (silent acting) and ballet
• Ballet may include solos, duets, and ensemble pieces that showcase the dancers' technical skill and artistry
  • Tells stories through movement, music, and visual elements rather than spoken dialogue
  • Classical ballets often adapt fairy tales, legends, or literary works (Romeo and Juliet, The Sleeping Beauty)

Contextual Influences on European Performance

Social and Economic Factors

• Commedia dell'arte reflected the social and economic changes of the Renaissance, with its focus on individual talent and entrepreneurship
  • Provided a way for actors to comment on and satirize contemporary society
• Ballet has often been associated with royalty and the upper classes, serving as a symbol of power and prestige
  • In the 20th century, however, ballet companies began to explore more contemporary and socially relevant themes (class struggle, gender roles)

Technological Advancements and Innovations

• Development of perspective scenery and stage machinery in the Renaissance allowed for more elaborate sets and special effects
  • Paved the way for spectacle-driven genres like opera and ballet
• Invention of gas lighting in the early 19th century enabled theaters to create more atmospheric and dramatic lighting effects
  • Later, electric lighting further expanded the possibilities for stage design and visual storytelling
• Advances in printing technology made scripts and scores more widely available, facilitating the spread of European performance traditions
  • Helped establish a canon of classic works that could be studied and revived by future generations

European Performance: Global Impact

Influence on Other Theatrical Traditions

• Greek theater has had a lasting impact on Western drama, with its emphasis on character, dialogue, and theme
  • Many modern plays and films follow the basic structure and conventions established by the Greeks (three-act structure, tragic hero)
• Commedia dell'arte has influenced comedy and improvisational theater around the world
  • Stock characters and scenarios can still be seen in contemporary sitcoms and sketch comedy (Punch and Judy, The Office)
• European theater has been adapted and reinterpreted by cultures around the world, often incorporating local traditions and themes
  • Japanese Noh theater combines elements of Greek tragedy with Buddhist philosophy and aesthetics

Cross-Cultural Exchange and Adaptation

• Ballet has become a global art form, with companies and schools in many countries
  • Has also influenced other dance styles, such as modern dance and jazz (Martha Graham, George Balanchine)
  • Ballet techniques and vocabulary have been incorporated into non-Western dance forms (Bharatanatyam, Korean dance)
• European performance traditions have been challenged and subverted by postcolonial and avant-garde artists
  • Seek to create new forms of expression that reflect diverse identities and experiences
  • Example: Aimé Césaire's adaptation of Shakespeare's "The Tempest" from a Caribbean perspective ("Une Tempête")