11.2 Performativity

Performativity challenges the idea that language merely describes reality. Instead, it proposes that language actively shapes and constructs our world. This concept, originating from J.L. Austin's work, has influenced literary theory, gender studies, and cultural studies.

Judith Butler applied performativity to gender, arguing that it's not innate but socially constructed through repeated acts. This theory has been influential in feminist and queer studies, challenging traditional notions of gender as fixed and binary.

Origins of performativity

• Performativity is a concept that emerged from the work of philosopher J.L. Austin and has since been influential in literary theory, gender studies, and cultural studies
• The idea of performativity challenges the notion that language merely describes reality, instead proposing that language can actively shape and construct reality
• Performativity is closely linked to the idea of social constructionism, which holds that many aspects of human identity and experience are shaped by social and cultural factors rather than being inherent or essential

J.L. Austin's speech act theory

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• J.L. Austin developed speech act theory in his 1955 book "How to Do Things with Words"
• Austin argued that language is not just used to make statements about the world, but can also be used to perform actions and bring about changes in social reality (marriage vows, legal sentences)
• Speech act theory distinguishes between the literal meaning of an utterance (locutionary act), the intended function or force of the utterance (illocutionary act), and the actual effects or consequences of the utterance (perlocutionary act)

Performative vs constative utterances

• Austin initially proposed a distinction between performative utterances, which perform an action and change reality, and constative utterances, which merely describe or report on reality
• Examples of performative utterances include "I now pronounce you husband and wife" or "I promise to pay you back"
• However, Austin later acknowledged that the distinction between performatives and constatives is not always clear-cut and that all utterances can be seen as having some performative dimension

Locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts

• Locutionary acts refer to the literal meaning or propositional content of an utterance (the words "I promise")
• Illocutionary acts refer to the intended function or force of an utterance, such as making a promise, giving an order, or expressing gratitude
• Perlocutionary acts refer to the actual effects or consequences of an utterance, such as persuading, convincing, or scaring someone
• The same locutionary act can have different illocutionary and perlocutionary forces depending on the context and the speaker's intentions (saying "I'll call you" as a promise vs. a threat)

Judith Butler's gender performativity

• Philosopher and gender theorist Judith Butler is one of the most influential thinkers to apply the concept of performativity to gender and identity
• In her 1990 book "Gender Trouble," Butler argues that gender is not a natural or essential aspect of identity, but rather a socially constructed performance that is constantly being enacted and reproduced through our behaviors, gestures, and speech
• Butler's theory of gender performativity has been hugely influential in feminist and queer theory, challenging traditional notions of gender as binary, fixed, and biologically determined

Gender as socially constructed

• Butler argues that gender is not an innate or natural fact, but rather a social construct that is produced through the repetition of stylized acts and behaviors
• These acts and behaviors are shaped by cultural norms, expectations, and power structures, which dictate what counts as "masculine" or "feminine" in a given context
• Examples of gender performativity include the way we dress, speak, move, and interact with others, all of which are influenced by societal norms and expectations around gender

Performativity vs performance

• Butler distinguishes between performativity and performance, arguing that gender is not a conscious performance that we put on, but rather a performative process that constitutes our very sense of self
• While a performance implies a degree of choice and agency, performativity suggests that our gender identities are the product of pre-existing social scripts and power structures that we are born into and must navigate
• However, Butler also suggests that there is room for subversion and resistance within the performative process, as individuals can challenge and disrupt dominant gender norms through their own performative acts

Subversion and resistance through performativity

• Although gender is a socially constructed performance, Butler argues that there is still potential for subversion and resistance within the performative process
• By engaging in gender performances that challenge or disrupt dominant norms, individuals can expose the constructed nature of gender and open up new possibilities for identity and expression
• Examples of subversive gender performances might include drag, gender-bending fashion, or non-binary gender identities that reject the male/female binary
• However, Butler also cautions that subversive performances can sometimes be co-opted or commodified by dominant culture, losing their radical potential

Performativity in literature and culture

• The concept of performativity has been widely applied in literary and cultural studies to analyze how texts and cultural practices construct and negotiate identity, power, and social reality
• Scholars have examined how literary texts use language performatively to create characters, worlds, and meanings, as well as how readers perform interpretations and construct their own identities through the act of reading
• Performativity has also been used to analyze cultural practices such as rituals, festivals, and political demonstrations, which can be seen as performances that construct and contest social realities

Performative language in texts

• Literary texts often use language performatively to create characters, settings, and meanings that shape the reader's understanding of the world
• For example, a novel's opening line such as "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times" (from Dickens' "A Tale of Two Cities") performatively sets the stage for the narrative and invites the reader to enter into a particular fictional reality
• Poetic language can also be seen as performative, using techniques such as rhythm, metaphor, and repetition to create effects and meanings that go beyond the literal content of the words

Performativity and identity construction

• Performativity has been used to analyze how literary and cultural texts construct and negotiate identities, particularly marginalized or subordinated identities such as those based on race, gender, sexuality, or class
• For example, postcolonial scholars have examined how colonial and postcolonial texts performatively construct and contest the identities of colonizers and colonized peoples, often through the use of stereotypes, mimicry, and hybridity
• Queer theorists have also used performativity to analyze how LGBTQ+ identities are constructed and negotiated through cultural practices such as coming out, pride parades, and drag performances

Performativity and power dynamics

• Performativity is closely linked to questions of power and inequality, as dominant social groups often have the power to shape and enforce the scripts and norms that govern performative behavior
• For example, feminist scholars have analyzed how patriarchal power structures shape the performative scripts of femininity, dictating norms of beauty, behavior, and sexuality that women are expected to conform to
• Similarly, critical race theorists have examined how white supremacy shapes the performative scripts of race, privileging whiteness as the unmarked norm against which other racial identities are defined and marginalized
• Analyzing the performative dimensions of power can help to expose and challenge the ways in which social inequalities are reproduced and maintained through everyday practices and interactions

Critiques and limitations of performativity

• While performativity has been a hugely influential concept in literary and cultural studies, it has also been subject to various critiques and limitations
• Some scholars have argued that performativity can be overly deterministic, leaving little room for individual agency or resistance, while others have suggested that it can be too abstract or theoretical, divorced from the material realities of people's lives
• There have also been debates around the relationship between performativity and essentialism, as well as questions of how performativity intersects with other aspects of identity and oppression

Essentialism vs social constructionism debate

• One key debate around performativity has been the question of essentialism vs social constructionism - whether identities are innate and fixed, or socially constructed and fluid
• Some critics have argued that performativity can reinforce essentialist notions of identity by suggesting that there are pre-existing scripts or norms that individuals must conform to
• Others have defended performativity as a fundamentally anti-essentialist concept, one that challenges the idea of fixed or natural identities and emphasizes the role of social and cultural factors in shaping who we are

Constraints on agency and subversion

• Another critique of performativity is that it can be overly deterministic, leaving little room for individual agency or resistance in the face of dominant social norms and power structures
• While Butler and others have emphasized the potential for subversion and resistance within the performative process, critics have argued that this potential is often limited by the constraints of existing social structures and inequalities
• For example, while individuals may be able to challenge gender norms through subversive performances, they may still face social sanctions, discrimination, or violence for doing so, particularly if they belong to marginalized or oppressed groups

Intersectionality and performativity

• A further limitation of performativity is that it can sometimes be applied in a way that is overly simplistic or reductive, failing to account for the complex ways in which different aspects of identity and oppression intersect and interact
• Intersectionality, a concept developed by legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw, emphasizes the need to consider how different forms of identity and oppression (such as race, gender, class, and sexuality) intersect and compound each other
• Critics have argued that performativity theory can sometimes focus too narrowly on a single aspect of identity (such as gender), without considering how it intersects with other aspects (such as race or class) to shape individuals' experiences and opportunities

Performativity in contemporary theory

• Despite these critiques and limitations, performativity remains a vital and influential concept in contemporary literary and cultural theory
• Scholars continue to use performativity to analyze a wide range of texts, practices, and phenomena, from digital media and online identities to postcolonial literature and global politics
• Performativity has also been taken up and extended by scholars working in fields such as queer theory, critical race theory, and disability studies, who have used it to challenge dominant norms and power structures and to imagine new possibilities for identity, agency, and social change

Performativity and queer theory

• Queer theory, which emerged in the 1990s as a challenge to traditional notions of gender and sexuality, has been deeply influenced by Butler's theory of gender performativity
• Queer theorists have used performativity to analyze how LGBTQ+ identities are constructed and negotiated through cultural practices such as coming out, pride parades, and drag performances
• They have also used performativity to challenge the idea of fixed or natural sexual identities, emphasizing the fluidity and multiplicity of desire and the potential for subversion and resistance within dominant heteronormative scripts

Performativity and postcolonial studies

• Postcolonial scholars have also drawn on performativity to analyze how colonial and postcolonial identities are constructed and contested through literary and cultural texts
• For example, scholars have examined how colonial texts performatively construct the identities of colonized peoples as primitive, exotic, or inferior, while postcolonial texts often use techniques such as mimicry, hybridity, and counter-discourse to challenge and subvert these colonial scripts
• Performativity has also been used to analyze the performative dimensions of postcolonial politics and resistance, such as the use of cultural festivals, protests, and social movements to contest dominant power structures and assert new forms of identity and agency

Performativity and digital media

• In recent years, scholars have increasingly applied performativity to the study of digital media and online culture, examining how identities and social realities are constructed and negotiated through digital platforms and practices
• For example, scholars have analyzed how social media platforms like Facebook and Instagram shape the performative scripts of online identity, encouraging users to present curated and idealized versions of themselves
• Others have examined how online communities and subcultures use performative practices such as memes, hashtags, and viral challenges to construct and contest social norms and identities
• Performativity has also been used to analyze the political dimensions of digital media, such as the use of online activism and hashtag campaigns to challenge dominant power structures and mobilize social movements