11.5 Zionism and the Arab-Israeli conflict

The Arab-Israeli conflict stems from competing claims to the land of Palestine. Zionism, a Jewish nationalist movement, sought to establish a Jewish homeland there. This clashed with Arab aspirations for self-determination, leading to decades of war and unrest.

Key events include Israel's founding in 1948, subsequent Arab-Israeli wars, and failed peace efforts like the Oslo Accords. Ongoing issues include Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories, the status of Jerusalem, and Palestinian refugees' right of return. A two-state solution remains elusive.

Origins of Zionism

• Zionism emerged as a political movement in the late 19th century with the goal of establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine, the ancient Land of Israel
• The movement gained momentum in response to rising anti-Semitism in Europe and the desire for Jewish self-determination and cultural revival

Herzl's vision for Jewish state

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• Theodor Herzl, considered the founder of modern Zionism, envisioned a Jewish state as a solution to the "Jewish problem" of persecution and statelessness
• In his influential book "Der Judenstaat" (The Jewish State), Herzl argued for the creation of a Jewish homeland through diplomatic and political means
• Herzl convened the First Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland in 1897, which established the World Zionist Organization to promote Jewish immigration to Palestine

Balfour Declaration of 1917

• The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British government during World War I, expressing support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine
• The declaration was seen as a significant diplomatic achievement for the Zionist movement, as it represented the first official recognition of Jewish national aspirations by a major power
• However, the declaration also contained ambiguous language regarding the rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, setting the stage for future conflict

British Mandate in Palestine

• Following World War I, the League of Nations granted Britain a mandate to administer Palestine, with the responsibility of facilitating the establishment of a Jewish national home
• The British Mandate period (1920-1948) saw a significant increase in Jewish immigration to Palestine, as well as rising tensions between the Jewish and Arab populations
• The British attempted to balance the competing interests of Jews and Arabs through various policies, such as the Churchill White Paper of 1922 and the MacDonald White Paper of 1939, which placed restrictions on Jewish immigration and land purchases

Establishment of Israel

• The establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 was a pivotal moment in the history of Zionism and the Arab-Israeli conflict, marking the realization of the Zionist dream of Jewish statehood
• The process leading up to Israel's independence was marked by growing violence between Jews and Arabs, as well as international diplomatic efforts to resolve the conflict

UN Partition Plan of 1947

• In November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 181, which called for the partition of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem under international control
• The partition plan was accepted by the Jewish leadership but rejected by the Arab states and Palestinian Arabs, who viewed it as a violation of their rights and a betrayal of promises made during World War I

Israeli Declaration of Independence

• On May 14, 1948, the Jewish Agency, led by David Ben-Gurion, declared the establishment of the State of Israel, citing the UN partition plan as the legal basis for Jewish statehood
• The declaration emphasized the historical and cultural ties of the Jewish people to the Land of Israel, as well as the need for a Jewish homeland in the wake of the Holocaust
• The United States and the Soviet Union were among the first countries to recognize Israel's independence

Arab rejection of partition

• The Arab states and Palestinian Arabs rejected the UN partition plan and the establishment of Israel, viewing it as an illegitimate and unjust division of Arab land
• The Arab League, a regional organization of Arab states, declared its intention to intervene militarily to prevent the implementation of the partition plan and the creation of a Jewish state
• The Arab rejection of partition and Israel's independence set the stage for the first Arab-Israeli war and the ongoing conflict between Israel and its Arab neighbors

Arab-Israeli wars

• The Arab-Israeli conflict has been marked by a series of wars and military confrontations between Israel and its Arab neighbors, often centered around issues of territory, security, and the rights of Palestinian Arabs
• These wars have had a profound impact on the region's geopolitics and have shaped the ongoing struggle for peace and coexistence

1948 Arab-Israeli War

• Also known as the War of Independence (from the Israeli perspective) or the Nakba (catastrophe) from the Palestinian perspective, this war broke out immediately after Israel's declaration of independence in May 1948
• The war pitted Israel against a coalition of Arab states (Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, and Iraq) that sought to prevent the establishment of a Jewish state and support the Palestinian Arabs
• Despite being outnumbered and outgunned, Israel managed to defend its territory and even expand its borders beyond the UN partition plan, while the war resulted in the displacement of hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arabs who became refugees in neighboring countries

1967 Six-Day War

• In June 1967, Israel launched a preemptive strike against Egypt, Syria, and Jordan, following months of escalating tensions and the mobilization of Arab armies along Israel's borders
• In a swift and decisive campaign, Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria
• The war resulted in a major territorial expansion for Israel and a humiliating defeat for the Arab states, while also placing a large Palestinian Arab population under Israeli military occupation

1973 Yom Kippur War

• On October 6, 1973, Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel on the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur, in an attempt to regain the territories lost in the 1967 war
• Despite initial Arab advances, Israel managed to turn the tide of the war and push back the attacking forces, thanks in part to a massive U.S. airlift of military supplies
• The war ended with a ceasefire and no significant changes to the territorial status quo, but it had a profound psychological impact on Israel, shattering the sense of invincibility that had prevailed since the Six-Day War

Palestinian refugees

• The Arab-Israeli conflict has resulted in the displacement of a large number of Palestinian Arabs, who have become refugees in neighboring countries or in the occupied territories
• The plight of Palestinian refugees remains a major humanitarian and political issue, with significant implications for the prospects of a comprehensive peace settlement

Nakba and displacement

• The 1948 Arab-Israeli War, known as the Nakba (catastrophe) in Arabic, resulted in the displacement of an estimated 700,000 to 750,000 Palestinian Arabs, who fled or were expelled from their homes in what became Israel
• Many Palestinian refugees ended up in neighboring countries such as Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, where they often lived in poverty and political marginalization
• The Nakba is a defining event in Palestinian history and identity, and the right of return for refugees and their descendants remains a key Palestinian demand in peace negotiations

Right of return debate

• The right of return refers to the Palestinian demand that refugees and their descendants be allowed to return to their former homes and properties in what is now Israel
• Israel has consistently rejected the right of return, arguing that it would threaten the Jewish character of the state and lead to demographic changes that would undermine Israel's security
• The right of return remains a highly contentious issue in the Arab-Israeli conflict, with significant implications for the prospects of a comprehensive peace settlement

Refugee camps in neighboring countries

• Many Palestinian refugees live in camps in neighboring countries such as Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, where they often face poor living conditions, limited economic opportunities, and political marginalization
• The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) provides education, healthcare, and social services to Palestinian refugees in these camps
• The presence of large Palestinian refugee populations in neighboring countries has also been a source of political instability and conflict, particularly in Lebanon, where Palestinian militias played a significant role in the country's civil war

Israeli settlements

• Israeli settlements refer to Jewish civilian communities built in the territories captured by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War, including the West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights
• The settlements have been a major source of controversy and conflict in the Arab-Israeli dispute, with significant implications for the prospects of a two-state solution and the rights of Palestinians

Expansion in occupied territories

• Since 1967, Israel has established and expanded settlements in the occupied territories, particularly in the West Bank and East Jerusalem
• The settlement enterprise has been driven by a combination of religious, nationalist, and security considerations, with some Israelis viewing the settlements as a means of asserting Jewish historical and religious ties to the land
• The expansion of settlements has often involved the confiscation of Palestinian land and the displacement of Palestinian communities, leading to tensions and violence between settlers and Palestinians

International legal status

• The international community, including the United Nations, has generally considered Israeli settlements in the occupied territories to be illegal under international law
• The Fourth Geneva Convention prohibits an occupying power from transferring its own civilian population into the territory it occupies
• However, Israel has disputed the applicability of the Fourth Geneva Convention to the West Bank and East Jerusalem, arguing that these territories were not under the legitimate sovereignty of any state prior to their capture in 1967

Impact on peace process

• The expansion of Israeli settlements has been a major obstacle to the peace process and the prospects of a two-state solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict
• The presence of settlements in the West Bank and East Jerusalem has made it increasingly difficult to establish a contiguous and viable Palestinian state, as envisioned by the Oslo Accords and subsequent peace initiatives
• The settlements have also been a source of friction and violence between Israelis and Palestinians, with settlers often enjoying the protection of the Israeli military while Palestinians face restrictions on their movement and access to land and resources

Palestinian resistance

• Palestinian resistance to Israeli occupation and the Zionist project has taken various forms over the decades, from armed struggle to political activism and civil disobedience
• The resistance has been led by a variety of political factions and movements, each with its own ideology, tactics, and goals

PLO and Fatah

• The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was established in 1964 as an umbrella group for various Palestinian factions, with the goal of achieving Palestinian national liberation through armed struggle and political means
• Fatah, founded by Yasser Arafat in the late 1950s, emerged as the dominant faction within the PLO, advocating for a secular, nationalist approach to the Palestinian struggle
• The PLO initially engaged in armed resistance against Israel, including cross-border raids and terrorist attacks, but eventually shifted towards a more diplomatic approach, culminating in the Oslo Accords of the 1990s

Hamas and Gaza Strip

• Hamas, an Islamist movement founded in 1987 during the First Intifada, has emerged as a major rival to Fatah and the PLO in the Palestinian resistance
• Hamas has controlled the Gaza Strip since 2007, following a violent conflict with Fatah, and has engaged in armed resistance against Israel, including rocket attacks and the construction of underground tunnels
• Israel and the international community have designated Hamas as a terrorist organization, and the group's control of Gaza has led to a severe economic and humanitarian crisis in the coastal enclave

Intifadas and uprisings

• The Palestinian resistance has been punctuated by major popular uprisings against Israeli occupation, known as Intifadas (Arabic for "shaking off")
• The First Intifada (1987-1993) was a largely nonviolent uprising characterized by mass demonstrations, civil disobedience, and stone-throwing, which eventually led to the Oslo Accords and the establishment of the Palestinian Authority
• The Second Intifada (2000-2005), also known as the Al-Aqsa Intifada, was a more violent uprising triggered by the breakdown of the Oslo peace process and the controversial visit of Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon to the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif in Jerusalem

Peace efforts

• The Arab-Israeli conflict has been the subject of numerous international peace efforts and initiatives over the decades, seeking to resolve the underlying issues and establish a lasting peace between Israelis and Palestinians
• While some of these efforts have produced significant breakthroughs and agreements, the overall peace process has been marred by setbacks, failures, and the persistence of violence and mistrust

Camp David Accords of 1978

• The Camp David Accords were a set of agreements signed in 1978 between Israel and Egypt, under the auspices of U.S. President Jimmy Carter
• The accords consisted of two frameworks: one for peace between Israel and Egypt, and another for a comprehensive peace in the Middle East, including the establishment of Palestinian autonomy in the West Bank and Gaza
• While the Israel-Egypt peace treaty was successfully implemented, leading to the normalization of relations between the two countries, the Palestinian autonomy provisions of the accords were never fully realized

Oslo Accords of 1993

• The Oslo Accords, signed in 1993 between Israel and the PLO, represented a major breakthrough in the Arab-Israeli peace process
• The accords established a framework for Palestinian self-government in the West Bank and Gaza, through the creation of the Palestinian Authority (PA), and set out a timetable for negotiations on final status issues such as borders, Jerusalem, and refugees
• However, the implementation of the Oslo Accords was hindered by a number of factors, including the continued expansion of Israeli settlements, Palestinian terrorist attacks, and the failure to reach agreement on final status issues

Challenges and failures

• Despite the various peace efforts and initiatives over the years, the Arab-Israeli conflict has proven to be a complex and intractable problem, resistant to easy solutions
• The peace process has been hindered by a number of challenges, including the deep-rooted mistrust between Israelis and Palestinians, the competing claims to land and resources, the role of external actors and regional dynamics, and the impact of domestic politics on both sides
• The failure of the peace process has perpetuated the cycle of violence and suffering, and has led to a growing sense of frustration and disillusionment among both Israelis and Palestinians

Status of Jerusalem

• The status of Jerusalem is one of the most contentious and sensitive issues in the Arab-Israeli conflict, with both Israelis and Palestinians claiming the city as their capital and a central part of their national and religious identity
• The dispute over Jerusalem has been a major obstacle to peace efforts and has often been a flashpoint for violence and unrest

Religious significance for Judaism vs Islam

• Jerusalem holds immense religious significance for both Judaism and Islam, as well as for Christianity
• For Jews, Jerusalem is the site of the ancient Temple and the holiest city in Judaism, with the Western Wall (the last remnant of the Second Temple) serving as the most sacred prayer site
• For Muslims, Jerusalem is the third holiest city in Islam, after Mecca and Medina, and is home to the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock, which are located on the Temple Mount (known to Muslims as the Haram al-Sharif)

Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem

• In the aftermath of the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel annexed East Jerusalem, which had previously been under Jordanian control, and declared the entire city as its "eternal and undivided capital"
• The Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem has not been recognized by the international community, which considers it to be occupied territory and subject to the same legal status as the West Bank
• The annexation has led to the expansion of Israeli settlements in East Jerusalem and the imposition of Israeli law and administration on the Palestinian residents of the city

International recognition of capital

• The international community, including the United Nations, has generally not recognized Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem and has called for the city's final status to be determined through negotiations between Israelis and Palestinians
• In December 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump announced that the United States would recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel and move its embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, a decision that was widely criticized by the international community and led to protests and violence in the region
• The status of Jerusalem remains a major point of contention in the Arab-Israeli conflict, with both Israelis and Palestinians claiming the city as their capital and a central part of their national and religious identity

Current situation

• The Arab-Israeli conflict remains unresolved, with ongoing tensions, violence, and political and diplomatic challenges
• The current situation is characterized by the continued Israeli occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem, the blockade of the Gaza Strip, and the absence of a comprehensive peace agreement between Israelis and Palestinians

Ongoing occupation and conflict

• The Israeli occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem, which began in 1967, continues to be a major source of conflict and tension in the region
• The occupation has been characterized by the expansion of Israeli settlements, the construction of the separation barrier, and the imposition of restrictions on Palestinian movement and access to land and resources
• The ongoing conflict has led to periodic outbreaks of violence, including Palestinian terrorist attacks and Israeli military operations, as well as human rights abuses and violations of international law by both sides

Prospects for two-state solution

• The two-state solution, which envisions the establishment of an independent Palestinian state alongside Israel, has been the basis of most international peace efforts and initiatives in recent decades
• However, the prospects for a two-state solution have been increasingly challenged by a number of factors, including the continued expansion of Israeli settlements, the political divisions among Palestinians, and the erosion of trust and goodwill between the two sides
• Some experts and analysts have argued that the two-state solution may no longer be viable, given the realities on the ground and the changing political and demographic landscape in the region

Role of international community

• The international community has played a significant role in the Arab-Israeli conflict, through diplomatic efforts, financial assistance, and the deployment of peacekeeping forces
• The United Nations has been involved in the conflict since its early stages, through resolutions, fact-finding missions, and the establishment of agencies such as UNRWA (the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East)
• The United States has been a key player in the peace process, serving as a mediator and providing significant military and economic assistance to Israel, while also supporting the establishment of a Palestinian state
• The European Union and other regional and international organizations have also been involved in the conflict, through diplomatic initiatives, economic assistance, and support for civil society and peacebuilding efforts