12.3 The Power of Gender: Patriarchy and Matriarchy

Gender ideology shapes how societies view and treat men and women. Patriarchy, where men hold power, is common. Matriarchy, where women lead, is rare. These systems influence family, economics, politics, religion, and daily life.

Challenging male dominance, some cultures show more gender equality. Examples include matrilineal societies and groups where women have significant influence. These cases reveal diverse gender roles across cultures, proving male dominance isn't universal.

Gender Ideology and Social Systems

Gender ideology: patriarchy vs matriarchy

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• Gender ideology represents a set of cultural beliefs and practices that define the social roles, behaviors, and expectations for males and females in a society, shaping the power dynamics and relationships between men and women
• Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold the majority of power and authority, dominating in political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property, while women's roles are primarily domestic and subordinate to men (most common historically)
• Matriarchy is a social system in which women hold the majority of power and authority, dominating in political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property, while men's roles are primarily domestic and subordinate to women (rare or debated)

Patriarchal influence on social systems

• Family structure shaped by patriarchy, with men considered the head of the household and primary decision-makers, while women are expected to be primarily responsible for child-rearing and domestic tasks
• Economic systems influenced by patriarchy, with men often controlling the majority of economic resources and having greater access to paid labor, while women's economic opportunities may be limited and they are often paid less than men for the same work (gender pay gap)
• Political systems dominated by men in leadership positions and decision-making processes, while women's political participation and representation may be limited (underrepresentation in government)
• Religious institutions in many traditions assign leadership roles to men and emphasize male authority, while women's roles are often limited or subordinate to men (male clergy, gender-segregated worship)
• Daily practices and social norms shaped by patriarchy, with double standards in sexual behavior and expression, greater restrictions on women, and gendered division of labor in household tasks and child-rearing responsibilities (slut-shaming, unequal domestic workload)
• Gender stratification reinforced through social institutions, limiting opportunities and access to resources based on gender
• Hegemonic masculinity perpetuates dominant male ideals and behaviors, often at the expense of women and other gender identities

Matriarchy and Challenging Male Dominance

Evidence for matriarchal societies

• Debate among anthropologists about the existence of true matriarchal societies, with some arguing insufficient evidence for societies where women held dominant power across all social institutions, while others suggest matriarchal elements may have existed in some societies, even if not fully matriarchal
• Matrilineal societies, where descent and inheritance are traced through the mother's lineage, such as the Minangkabau of Indonesia and the Mosuo of China, but matrilineal systems do not necessarily equate to matriarchal power structures
• Matrifocal societies, where women play a central role in the family and community, such as the Nayar of India and the Akan of Ghana, may have more gender equality but are not necessarily matriarchal
• Mythological and historical accounts of societies ruled by women or goddesses, and historical accounts of Amazons and other female-led groups, but limited archaeological evidence

Cultural challenges to male dominance

• Iroquois Confederacy (Native American) had women holding significant political power, able to nominate and remove male leaders, with clan mothers having authority over land and resources
• Igbo of Nigeria had women's councils and associations wielding significant political and economic influence, able to collectively protest male decisions and actions
• Khasi of India are a matrilineal society where women control property and inheritance, though men still hold political leadership roles, but women have substantial influence
• Moso of China are a matrilineal society with no formal marriage institution, where women are the head of the household and control economic resources
• These examples demonstrate the diversity of gender roles and power dynamics across cultures, challenging the notion that male dominance is universal or inherent, and highlighting the variety of gender ideologies and social structures in human societies

Gender and Society

Gender roles and expectations

• Gender performativity shapes how individuals enact and reinforce gender norms through daily behaviors and interactions
• Sexual division of labor often reflects and reinforces gender roles in both domestic and public spheres
• Gender socialization processes teach individuals how to conform to societal expectations based on their assigned gender

Intersectionality and gender

• Intersectionality examines how various social categories, including gender, race, class, and sexuality, interact to create unique experiences of privilege or oppression
• Reproductive rights are often at the forefront of gender equality debates, highlighting the complex interplay between gender, healthcare, and personal autonomy