12.2 Indigenous music and performance

Indigenous music and performance are vibrant expressions of cultural identity. From traditional drumming and sacred chants to contemporary fusion styles, these art forms preserve ancestral knowledge and connect communities to their heritage.

Indigenous artists blend ancient traditions with modern influences, creating powerful new forms of expression. Through music and dance, they celebrate their cultures, address social issues, and assert their rights in a rapidly changing world.

Indigenous musical traditions

• Indigenous musical traditions encompass a wide range of styles, instruments, and techniques that have been passed down through generations
• These traditions are deeply connected to the spiritual, social, and cultural practices of Indigenous communities across the Americas
• Indigenous music often incorporates elements of nature, such as animal sounds, and is performed in a variety of settings, from intimate gatherings to large ceremonies

Drumming and percussion

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• Drumming is a central component of many Indigenous musical traditions, with drums often considered sacred objects
• Various types of drums are used, including hand drums, frame drums, and log drums, each with their own unique sounds and purposes
• Percussion instruments, such as rattles and shakers, are often used in conjunction with drums to create complex rhythms and textures
• Drumming and percussion are used to accompany songs, dances, and storytelling, as well as to communicate with the spirit world

Vocal styles and techniques

• Indigenous vocal styles encompass a wide range of techniques, including throat singing, vocables, and polyphonic singing
• Throat singing, practiced by Inuit and other Arctic peoples, involves producing multiple pitches simultaneously through a combination of voice and breath control
• Vocables, or non-lexical syllables, are often used in Indigenous songs to convey emotions, imitate natural sounds, or serve as mnemonic devices
• Polyphonic singing, in which multiple melodic lines are performed simultaneously, is found in various Indigenous cultures, such as the Wayuu people of Colombia and Venezuela

Flutes and wind instruments

• Flutes and wind instruments, crafted from materials such as wood, bone, and clay, are used in many Indigenous musical traditions
• The Native American flute, known for its haunting and melodic sound, is often associated with courtship, healing, and spiritual practices
• Panpipes, consisting of multiple tubes of varying lengths, are found in the musical traditions of the Andes and other parts of South America
• Whistles and ocarinas, small enclosed wind instruments, are used in various Indigenous cultures for signaling, hunting, and musical expression

Stringed instruments

• Stringed instruments, while less common than drums and wind instruments, are found in some Indigenous musical traditions
• The Andean charango, a small guitar-like instrument made from an armadillo shell or wood, is known for its bright and cheerful sound
• The Paraguayan harp, introduced by Spanish colonizers, has been adapted and incorporated into the musical traditions of the Guaraní people
• Fiddles and bows, such as the Apache fiddle and the Inuit tautirut, are used in some North American Indigenous communities

Rattles, shakers, and other percussion

• Rattles and shakers, made from materials such as gourds, shells, and animal hooves, are used to provide rhythmic accompaniment in many Indigenous musical traditions
• Gourd rattles, such as the Hopi rattle and the Mapuche kultrun, are often decorated with intricate designs and are considered sacred objects
• Deer-hoof rattles, used by various Plains Indian tribes, produce a distinctive sound and are often used in healing ceremonies
• Other percussion instruments, such as the Mesoamerican teponaztli (slit drum) and the Inuit qilaut (frame drum), add depth and complexity to Indigenous musical performances

Ceremonial and sacred music

• Ceremonial and sacred music plays a vital role in the spiritual practices and cultural traditions of Indigenous communities across the Americas
• This music is often performed in specific contexts, such as ceremonies, rituals, and rites of passage, and is believed to have healing and transformative powers
• Sacred songs and chants are often passed down through generations and are considered a means of connecting with the spirit world and maintaining cultural identity

Music in spiritual practices

• Music is an integral part of many Indigenous spiritual practices, serving as a means of communication with the divine, ancestors, and nature spirits
• Sacred songs and chants are often used to invoke the presence of spirits, offer prayers, and express gratitude
• In the Navajo tradition, the Blessingway ceremony involves the chanting of sacred songs to restore balance and harmony in an individual's life
• The Huichol people of Mexico use music and chanting in their peyote ceremonies to facilitate spiritual journeys and healing

Songs for healing and prayer

• Indigenous communities often use music as a tool for healing, both physically and spiritually
• Healing songs, such as the Icaros of the Shipibo people in the Amazon, are believed to have the power to cure illnesses, dispel negative energies, and restore balance
• Prayer songs, like those used in the sweat lodge ceremonies of many North American Indigenous tribes, are a means of communicating with the Creator and seeking guidance and protection
• The Seri people of Mexico have a tradition of singing healing songs to treat various ailments, with each song corresponding to a specific condition

Chants and incantations

• Chants and incantations are a common feature of Indigenous ceremonial music, often used to invoke spirits, alter states of consciousness, and convey sacred knowledge
• The Kuna people of Panama use chanted prayers and incantations in their healing rituals, which are performed by specialized shamans called inatoilet
• In the Haida tradition of the Pacific Northwest, potlatch ceremonies involve the chanting of sacred songs and stories to honor ancestors and maintain social bonds
• The Selk'nam people of Tierra del Fuego used chanted incantations in their initiation ceremonies, which marked the passage of young men into adulthood

Music in rites of passage

• Music plays a significant role in the rites of passage of many Indigenous communities, marking important transitions in an individual's life
• Puberty ceremonies, such as the Apache Sunrise Dance and the Navajo Kinaalda, involve the singing of sacred songs to celebrate and support the transition to adulthood
• Funeral and mourning ceremonies, like the Andean Ayarachi and the Lakota Ghost Dance, use music to honor the deceased and help their spirits journey to the afterlife
• The Tlingit people of the Pacific Northwest perform the Ku.éex' ceremony, which involves singing and dancing to commemorate the lives of the deceased and redistribute their possessions

Social and cultural significance

• Music plays a vital role in the social and cultural lives of Indigenous communities, serving as a means of communication, education, and identity formation
• Indigenous music is often deeply connected to the natural world, reflecting the rhythms and sounds of the environment and the changing seasons
• Through music, Indigenous peoples express their values, beliefs, and histories, strengthening social bonds and preserving cultural heritage

Music as oral history

• In many Indigenous cultures, music serves as a form of oral history, preserving and transmitting knowledge across generations
• Songs often recount important events, such as migrations, battles, and natural disasters, as well as the deeds of legendary figures and ancestors
• The Pima people of the American Southwest have a tradition of singing "bird songs," which tell the story of their ancestors' journey from the underworld to the present day
• The Quechua people of the Andes use harawi songs to convey historical narratives, cultural values, and social commentary

Songs for storytelling and teaching

• Indigenous songs are often used as a means of storytelling and teaching, conveying important lessons and moral values to younger generations
• Story songs, like those found in the Diné (Navajo) and Apache traditions, use vivid imagery and metaphor to impart wisdom and cultural knowledge
• The Mapuche people of Chile and Argentina have a tradition of singing epew, or animal fables, which teach children about the natural world and proper behavior
• The Inuit people use songs and chants to teach children about hunting techniques, survival skills, and the importance of respecting nature

Music in community gatherings

• Music is an essential element of many Indigenous community gatherings, such as festivals, feasts, and ceremonies
• Communal singing and dancing help to strengthen social bonds, promote unity, and celebrate shared cultural heritage
• The powwow, a pan-tribal gathering that originated among the Plains Indians, features a wide range of musical styles and dance competitions, bringing together Indigenous peoples from across North America
• The Andean Inti Raymi festival, which honors the sun god, involves music and dancing as a way of giving thanks for the harvest and promoting community well-being

Music and identity

• For many Indigenous peoples, music is a powerful expression of cultural identity, reflecting their unique histories, languages, and worldviews
• Participation in musical traditions helps to foster a sense of belonging and pride in one's cultural heritage
• The revival of traditional music and dance has played a key role in the cultural resurgence and political activism of many Indigenous communities
• The Sámi people of northern Scandinavia use joik singing as a means of expressing their connection to the land, the reindeer, and their cultural identity in the face of ongoing colonization and assimilation pressures

Regional variations and diversity

• Indigenous musical traditions across the Americas are characterized by a wide range of regional variations and cultural diversity
• Each region has its own unique musical styles, instruments, and cultural contexts, reflecting the diverse histories and environments of Indigenous peoples
• Despite this diversity, many Indigenous musical traditions share common themes, such as the importance of the natural world, the role of music in spiritual practices, and the use of music to preserve cultural heritage

North American Indigenous music

• North American Indigenous music encompasses a wide range of styles and traditions, from the powwow music of the Plains Indians to the throat singing of the Inuit
• The music of the Pacific Northwest tribes, such as the Haida and the Tlingit, is characterized by complex vocal harmonies and the use of carved wooden instruments, such as the drum and the rattle
• The Eastern Woodlands tribes, including the Iroquois and the Huron, have a tradition of social dance music, featuring the use of water drums and gourd rattles
• The music of the Southwest tribes, such as the Navajo and the Hopi, is often associated with spiritual practices and ceremonies, such as the Yeibichai and the Kachina dances

Central American Indigenous music

• Central American Indigenous music is characterized by a fusion of Indigenous, European, and African influences, reflecting the region's complex history of colonization and cultural exchange
• The music of the Maya people of Guatemala and southern Mexico features the use of the marimba, a type of wooden xylophone, as well as flutes, drums, and rattles
• The Garifuna people of the Caribbean coast of Central America have a unique musical tradition that combines African rhythms with Indigenous and European influences, featuring the use of drums, maracas, and turtle shells
• The Miskito people of Nicaragua and Honduras have a tradition of sung poetry, known as omanko, which is used to convey historical narratives and cultural values

South American Indigenous music

• South American Indigenous music is characterized by a wide range of styles and instruments, reflecting the region's diverse geography and cultural traditions
• The music of the Andean highlands, played by the Quechua and Aymara peoples, features the use of wind instruments such as the quena flute and the zampoña panpipe, as well as stringed instruments like the charango
• The music of the Amazon rainforest, played by tribes such as the Yanomami and the Huaorani, often incorporates natural sounds and rhythms, such as the chirping of birds and the rushing of water
• The music of the Gran Chaco region, shared by the Guaraní and the Wichí peoples, is characterized by the use of gourd rattles, wooden flutes, and vocal harmonies

Caribbean Indigenous music

• Caribbean Indigenous music has been heavily influenced by the region's history of colonization and the transatlantic slave trade, resulting in a fusion of Indigenous, European, and African musical traditions
• The music of the Taíno people, who inhabited the Greater Antilles prior to European contact, featured the use of drums, maracas, and a type of flute called the botuto
• The Garifuna people, descendants of Carib, Arawak, and West African peoples, have a musical tradition that combines African rhythms with Indigenous and European influences, featuring the use of drums, maracas, and turtle shells
• The music of the Kalinago people of Dominica and St. Vincent is characterized by the use of the sisira, a type of rattle made from calabash gourds, as well as drums and vocal chants

Contemporary Indigenous music

• Contemporary Indigenous music reflects the ongoing evolution and adaptation of traditional musical forms in response to changing social, cultural, and technological contexts
• Indigenous musicians today often blend traditional styles and instruments with contemporary genres and production techniques, creating new forms of expression that reflect their experiences and identities
• Contemporary Indigenous music serves as a powerful tool for cultural revitalization, political activism, and the assertion of Indigenous rights and sovereignty

Fusion of traditional and modern styles

• Many contemporary Indigenous musicians incorporate traditional instruments, rhythms, and vocal techniques into modern musical genres, such as rock, pop, and electronic music
• The Canadian Inuit band Pamyua blends traditional throat singing with contemporary instrumentation and production techniques, creating a unique sound that reflects their cultural heritage and modern experiences
• The Peruvian band Uchpa combines traditional Andean instruments, such as the charango and the quena, with rock and reggae influences, creating a fusion style known as "Inka rock"
• The Mexican band Sak Tzevul incorporates traditional Mayan instruments and rhythms into their psychedelic rock sound, creating a unique blend of Indigenous and modern musical elements

Indigenous hip-hop and rap

• Hip-hop and rap have become popular forms of expression for many Indigenous youth, who use the genres to address issues of identity, social justice, and cultural pride
• The Lakota rapper Frank Waln uses his music to critique the ongoing impacts of colonization and to celebrate Indigenous resilience and resistance
• The Mapuche rapper Waikil uses his lyrics to promote the revitalization of the Mapudungun language and to raise awareness about the struggles of Indigenous peoples in Chile
• The Inuit rapper Hyper-T incorporates traditional throat singing and drum dance rhythms into his music, creating a unique style that reflects his cultural heritage and modern experiences

Indigenous rock and pop

• Indigenous rock and pop musicians often use their music to challenge stereotypes, assert their cultural identities, and promote social and political change
• The Inuk singer-songwriter Susan Aglukark blends traditional Inuit storytelling with contemporary pop and folk influences, creating music that reflects the experiences and aspirations of Indigenous peoples in Canada
• The Navajo band Blackfire combines punk rock with traditional Diné (Navajo) rhythms and lyrics, using their music to address issues of environmental justice and Indigenous rights
• The Zapotec singer Lila Downs incorporates traditional Oaxacan music and instrumentation into her pop and rock sound, creating a style that celebrates Indigenous cultural heritage and diversity

Indigenous electronic music

• Indigenous electronic musicians are using digital technologies and production techniques to create new forms of expression that reflect their cultural identities and contemporary experiences
• The Cree DJ and producer Boogey the Beat incorporates traditional powwow drum samples and vocals into his electronic dance music, creating a style that celebrates Indigenous culture and encourages cultural pride
• The Ecuadorian producer Nicola Cruz blends traditional Andean instruments and rhythms with electronic beats and ambient soundscapes, creating a immersive and meditative listening experience
• The Navajo artist Sage Bond uses modular synthesizers and digital processing to create experimental electronic compositions that reflect his cultural heritage and the landscapes of the American Southwest

Indigenous dance and performance

• Dance and performance are integral components of Indigenous cultural expression, often serving important social, spiritual, and ceremonial functions
• Indigenous dance styles and traditions vary widely across the Americas, reflecting the diversity of Indigenous cultures and their unique histories and environments
• Many Indigenous dances are closely connected to music, with specific songs and rhythms accompanying each dance style and serving to guide the movements and intentions of the dancers

Traditional dance styles

• Traditional Indigenous dance styles encompass a wide range of forms and purposes, from social and celebratory dances to sacred and ceremonial performances
• The hoop dance, practiced by many Plains Indian tribes, involves the use of multiple hoops to create intricate designs and symbolic formations, often representing the interconnectedness of all living things
• The Aztec dance, performed by Mexica and other Indigenous peoples in Mexico, features elaborate headdresses and costumes, with dancers moving to the rhythm of drums and other percussion instruments
• The pow wow, a pan-tribal gathering that originated among the Plains Indians, features a variety of dance styles, including the men's fancy dance, the women's jingle dress dance, and the grass dance

Ceremonial and sacred dances

• Ceremonial and sacred dances are performed in specific contexts, often as part of religious rituals or rites of passage, and are believed to have spiritual and transformative powers
• The sun dance, practiced by many Plains Indian tribes, is a sacred ceremony that involves fasting, prayer, and the offering of physical sacrifices, with dancers moving in a circular pattern around a central pole
• The Kachina dances, performed by the Hopi and other Pueblo peoples, feature masked dancers representing spirit beings who bring blessings and teachings to the community
• The Mapuche nguillatun ceremony, held in southern Chile and Argentina, involves a series of sacred dances and offerings to the spirits of the land and the ancestors, seeking their protection and guidance

Social and cultural dances

• Social and cultural dances serve important functions in Indigenous communities, promoting social bonding, cultural transmission, and the celebration of important events and transitions
• The round dance, practiced by many Indigenous peoples across North America, involves dancers moving in a circular pattern, holding hands and singing together, often as part of community gatherings and celebrations
• The Andean huayno dance, performed by Quechua and Aymara peoples, features couples dancing in a lively and flirtatious manner, often as part of weddings and other festive occasions
• The Inuit drum dance, performed by the Inuit peoples of the Arctic, involves dancers moving to the rhythm of a large drum, often