12.2 Military innovations and tactics

Medieval warfare evolved dramatically with new weapons and tactics. Longbows and cannons changed battlefields, while combined arms strategies made fights more complex. These shifts challenged traditional knight-centric warfare and chivalric ideals.

As infantry grew in importance, professional armies replaced feudal levies. This allowed for longer campaigns and more sophisticated strategies. The rise of paid soldiers and decline of feudal military service reshaped medieval society and warfare.

Advancements in medieval weaponry

Longbow

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• Powerful, long-range weapon capable of penetrating armor at a distance
• Required extensive training and skill to use effectively, with archers practicing from a young age
• Played a crucial role in English victories, such as the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, where longbowmen decimated the French cavalry
• Reduced the effectiveness of heavily armored knights by allowing infantry to engage them from afar

Cannon

• Introduced in Europe in the 14th century, using gunpowder to propel projectiles
• Gradually improved in accuracy, power, and mobility throughout the Middle Ages
• Contributed to the decline of traditional castle fortifications, as walls and towers became vulnerable to cannon fire
• Shifted the balance of power on the battlefield towards infantry and artillery, as cannons could be used to support infantry advances and break up enemy formations

Evolution of military tactics

Combined arms

• Integration of different types of troops on the battlefield, such as infantry, archers, and cavalry working together
• Allowed for more flexible and effective strategies, with each type of unit supporting and complementing the others
• Exemplified by the English use of longbowmen and dismounted knights at the Battle of Agincourt, where the combination of ranged fire and heavy infantry proved decisive

Decline of chivalry

• Traditional chivalric ideals of single combat and mounted charges became less relevant as warfare evolved
• Tactics focused more on practicality, efficiency, and the use of combined arms rather than individual heroism
• Use of ranged weapons and infantry formations challenged the dominance of the armored knight, as they could be engaged and defeated from a distance

Rise of infantry vs knights

Growing importance of infantry

• Became more crucial as tactics evolved, with infantry formations playing a central role in battles
• Pikemen and other foot soldiers could effectively counter cavalry charges by presenting a wall of spears
• Longbowmen and crossbowmen provided ranged support, thinning out enemy ranks before the infantry engaged
• Swiss pikemen and German Landsknechte gained renown as formidable infantry forces, known for their discipline and effectiveness on the battlefield

Diminishing role of heavily armored knights

• Vulnerable to new weapons like the longbow and cannon, which could penetrate or bypass their armor
• Expensive to equip and maintain, limiting the number of knights that could be fielded
• Less effective against well-organized infantry formations, as they could be bogged down and overwhelmed
• Gradually transitioned to a more leadership-focused role, commanding and directing troops rather than serving as the primary fighting force

Professional armies and feudalism

Rise of professional armies

• Soldiers hired and paid directly by the state or monarch, rather than serving through feudal obligations
• Full-time, well-trained troops replaced part-time feudal levies, providing a more reliable and effective fighting force
• Allowed for the maintenance of standing armies and the execution of longer, more complex campaigns
• Facilitated the development of more sophisticated tactics and strategies, as professional soldiers could be drilled and trained in advanced techniques

Decline of the feudal system of military service

• Feudal system, in which vassals provided military service in exchange for land, became less reliable as warfare evolved
• Monarchs sought more control over their armed forces, preferring the loyalty and consistency of professional soldiers
• Mercenaries and professional soldiers became increasingly common, offering their services to the highest bidder
• Feudal military obligations gradually replaced by systems of taxation and centralized recruitment, allowing monarchs to fund and control their armies directly