13.1 Causes and catalysts of independence movements

Independence movements in Spanish America were sparked by a mix of ideological and practical factors. Enlightenment ideas, revolutionary examples, and growing Creole discontent challenged Spanish rule. These influences spread through books, newspapers, and educated elites who questioned colonial hierarchy.

Spain's political instability, triggered by Napoleon's 1808 invasion, created a power vacuum in the colonies. This crisis led to the formation of local juntas, intensifying conflicts between peninsulares and criollos. Economic restrictions and Bourbon Reforms further fueled colonial discontent and desire for autonomy.

Enlightenment and Revolutionary Influences

Spread of Enlightenment Ideas in Latin America

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• Enlightenment ideas of liberty, equality, and self-governance spread to Latin America through books, newspapers, and educated Creoles who studied in Europe
• Creoles (American-born descendants of Spanish settlers) began to question the legitimacy of Spanish rule and their subordinate status in the colonial hierarchy
• Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau challenged the divine right of kings and advocated for representative government and individual rights
• The printing press facilitated the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas and revolutionary sentiment in the colonies (Gaceta de Caracas newspaper)

Impact of the American and French Revolutions

• The successful American Revolution (1765-1783) demonstrated that colonies could challenge and gain independence from a European power
• The French Revolution (1789-1799) further spread Enlightenment ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity, inspiring Latin American revolutionaries
• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) proclaimed individual rights and popular sovereignty, challenging the absolutist rule of the Spanish monarchy
• Latin American leaders such as Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín were influenced by the ideals and strategies of the American and French Revolutions

Growing Creole Discontent with Spanish Rule

• Creoles resented their exclusion from high-level political and administrative positions, which were reserved for peninsulares (Spanish-born officials)
• The Spanish colonial system imposed economic restrictions and monopolies that limited Creole economic opportunities and development
• Creoles were increasingly exposed to Enlightenment ideas and began to question the legitimacy of Spanish rule and their subordinate status in the colonial hierarchy
• The Conspiracy of the Machetes (1799) in Venezuela and the Conspiracy of the Landowners (1811) in Chile reflected growing Creole discontent and desire for independence

Spanish Political Instability

Napoleonic Invasion of Spain and the 1808 Crisis

• In 1808, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Spain and forced King Ferdinand VII to abdicate, placing his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne
• The Napoleonic invasion created a power vacuum and a crisis of legitimacy in the Spanish Empire, as the colonies no longer recognized the authority of the French-imposed king
• The 1808 crisis provided an opportunity for Latin American Creoles to challenge Spanish rule and assert their own political autonomy

Formation of Juntas and Competing Claims to Sovereignty

• In response to the 1808 crisis, local juntas (councils) were formed in Latin American cities to govern in the name of the deposed King Ferdinand VII
• The juntas claimed to represent the sovereignty of the people in the absence of the legitimate Spanish monarch
• The formation of juntas marked a shift towards self-governance and laid the foundation for the independence movements
• The Junta of Caracas (1810) and the Junta of Buenos Aires (1810) were among the first to declare autonomy from Spain

Conflict between Peninsulares and Criollos

• The 1808 crisis exacerbated tensions between peninsulares and criollos, as both groups sought to fill the power vacuum left by the deposed Spanish king
• Peninsulares sought to maintain their privileged status and loyalty to Spain, while criollos used the crisis to assert their political rights and push for autonomy
• In Mexico, the peninsulares overthrew the Creole-led junta and established a conservative government, leading to the outbreak of the Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821)
• The conflict between peninsulares and criollos highlighted the deep social and political divisions within the colonies and fueled the drive for independence

Economic and Administrative Factors

Impact of the Bourbon Reforms on Colonial Discontent

• The Bourbon Reforms were a series of administrative and economic changes implemented by the Spanish Crown in the 18th century to increase revenue and assert greater control over the colonies
• The reforms included increased taxation, the establishment of state monopolies on tobacco and other goods, and the centralization of administrative power
• Creoles resented the economic burden of the reforms and the erosion of their local autonomy, fueling discontent with Spanish rule
• The Comunero Revolt (1781) in New Granada (present-day Colombia) was a response to the Bourbon Reforms and reflected growing colonial opposition to Spanish policies

Economic Restrictions and the Desire for Free Trade

• The Spanish colonial system imposed strict economic regulations and trade restrictions, such as the monopoly of the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) in Seville
• Colonies were required to trade exclusively with Spain, limiting their access to international markets and hindering economic development
• Creoles sought to break free from these economic restrictions and establish direct trade relations with other nations, particularly the United States and Great Britain
• The desire for free trade and economic autonomy was a significant factor in the push for independence, as Creoles sought to control their own economic destinies
• The Rio de la Plata region (present-day Argentina) was particularly affected by trade restrictions and advocated for free trade as a key goal of its independence movement