14.1 The role of folk music in Romantic compositions

Folk music played a crucial role in Romantic compositions, shaping the sound and spirit of 19th-century music. Composers drew inspiration from traditional melodies, rhythms, and instruments to create works that celebrated national identity and cultural heritage.

This trend aligned with the broader movement of Nationalism in Music, exemplified by composers like Chopin and Tchaikovsky. By incorporating folk elements, these artists created a distinctive musical voice that resonated with their audiences and helped define their national musical styles.

Folk Music Influences on Romantic Composers

Characteristics of Folk Music

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• Folk music is typically passed down through oral tradition and reflects the culture, history, and values of a particular region or group of people
• Common characteristics of folk music include:
  • Simple, memorable melodies that are easy to sing and remember
  • Regular rhythms that often correspond to dance steps or work patterns
  • Repetitive structures like strophic form, where the same melody is repeated with different lyrics for each verse
• Folk music often features:
  • Pentatonic scales, which use a five-note scale (such as C, D, E, G, A)
  • Modal scales, which use a different arrangement of whole and half steps compared to major and minor scales
  • Drone notes, sustained tones that provide a harmonic foundation
  • Open fifths, intervals that create a hollow, spacious sound
• These musical elements differ from the tonal harmony and complex structures of Western classical music
• Lyrics in folk songs frequently:
  • Tell stories about historical events, legends, or everyday life
  • Express emotions like love, loss, or longing
  • Convey moral messages or social commentary
• The rich narratives and emotional content of folk songs provided a source of inspiration for Romantic composers
• Folk music is usually performed by untrained musicians using traditional instruments, such as:
  • Fiddles and other string instruments (guitars, mandolins, banjos)
  • Accordions and other free-reed instruments (harmonicas, concertinas)
  • Flutes, pipes, and other wind instruments (tin whistles, bagpipes)
• The timbres and textures of these instruments influenced the sound and orchestration of Romantic compositions

Significance of Folk Music for Romantic Composers

• Folk music represented a connection to the past and a sense of cultural identity for Romantic composers
• The simplicity and directness of folk music appealed to Romantic ideals of authenticity, spontaneity, and emotional expression
• Folk music provided a contrast to the formal complexity and emotional restraint of Classical-era music
• Composers saw folk music as a means of rejuvenating and democratizing art music by infusing it with the vitality and accessibility of popular culture
• The use of folk music elements allowed composers to evoke specific national or regional identities in their works (Hungarian for Liszt, Norwegian for Grieg)

Incorporating Folk Elements in Romantic Music

Use of Folk Melodies and Rhythms

• Composers often quoted or adapted entire folk melodies, using them as themes or motifs throughout a composition
  • Brahms used a Hungarian folk tune as the basis for the finale of his Hungarian Dance No. 5
  • Dvořák quoted Bohemian folk melodies in his Slavonic Dances and other works
• Folk melodies were sometimes altered or fragmented to suit the composer's artistic vision
  • Tchaikovsky adapted a Ukrainian folk tune in his Symphony No. 2 ("Little Russian") but varied and developed it over the course of the work
• Folk-inspired rhythms, such as lively dance patterns or asymmetrical meters, were integrated into Romantic works to evoke a sense of energy and spontaneity
  • Chopin's mazurkas and polonaises incorporate the rhythms of Polish folk dances
  • Grieg's Norwegian Dances feature the irregular meters and syncopations of Hardanger fiddle music
• Composers used rhythmic ostinatos (repeated patterns) to create a driving, folk-like pulse
  • The opening of Grieg's Piano Concerto features a pounding rhythmic ostinato that evokes the stomping of a Norwegian Halling dance

Harmonic and Timbral Evocations of Folk Music

• Composers mimicked the simple, modal harmonies of folk music by using:
  • Pedal points, sustained bass notes that create a drone-like effect
  • Parallel intervals like open fifths and octaves, which create a hollow, archaic sound
  • Modal progressions that avoid the strong tonal cadences of classical harmony
• These harmonic devices helped to create a sense of timelessness, simplicity, or otherness in Romantic music
• Composers evoked the timbres and textures of folk instruments through orchestration and instrumental techniques
  • Brahms imitated the sound of the Hungarian cimbalom (dulcimer) through tremolos and glissandi in the piano
  • Mahler used cowbells, mandolin, and guitar to create a pastoral, folk-like atmosphere in his symphonies
• The rough, unpolished timbres of folk instruments were sometimes used to create a sense of realism or earthiness in Romantic music
  • The opening of Strauss's tone poem Don Juan features a raucous drone played by the low strings, evoking the crude sound of a rustic bagpipe

Synthesis of Folk and Art Music

• Composers sometimes combined folk elements with more sophisticated compositional techniques to create a synthesis of popular and art music
  • Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsodies feature folk-like melodies and rhythms alongside virtuosic piano writing and thematic transformation
  • Mahler's symphonies incorporate folk-inspired melodies and timbres into a complex web of motivic development and orchestral color
• The juxtaposition of folk simplicity and artistic complexity created a sense of dialogue or tension between the two realms
• Composers used folk elements as a means of subverting or challenging the norms of classical music
  • Mussorgsky's opera Boris Godunov features folk-like choral writing and modal harmonies that defy the conventions of Italian opera
• The synthesis of folk and art music reflected the Romantic ideal of reconciling opposites and creating a more inclusive, universal form of musical expression

Nationalism's Impact on Romantic Music

Nationalism as a Cultural and Political Force

• Nationalism, or the desire to express and celebrate national identity, was a key cultural and political force during the Romantic era
• The rise of nationalism was fueled by:
  • The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, which spread ideas of self-determination and cultural pride across Europe
  • The unification movements in Germany and Italy, which sought to create cohesive nation-states out of fragmented regions
  • The growth of vernacular literature and folklore studies, which valorized the unique traditions and histories of different peoples
• Composers were influenced by nationalist ideologies and sought to create a distinctly national style of music that reflected the character and aspirations of their homelands

Evoking National Identity through Folk Music

• Composers sought to create a national style of music by drawing on the folk traditions, legends, and landscapes of their home countries
• The use of folk music elements allowed composers to evoke a sense of:
  • Place, by referencing the characteristic sounds and rhythms of a particular region
  • History, by alluding to ancient legends, heroes, or events that were central to national identity
  • Shared cultural heritage, by using musical materials that were familiar and meaningful to a broad audience
• Nationalist composers helped to put their countries on the musical map and assert their cultural independence from the dominant German tradition
  • Chopin's polonaises and mazurkas celebrated Polish national pride in the face of political oppression
  • Smetana's cycle of symphonic poems Má vlast (My Homeland) depicted the history and landscape of Bohemia
  • Grieg's Peer Gynt suites and Lyric Pieces evoked the rugged beauty and folk traditions of Norway
• The use of folk music allowed composers to create a sense of community and belonging among their listeners, fostering a shared sense of national identity

Diversification of Musical Styles

• The emphasis on nationalism in Romantic music contributed to the diversification of musical styles across Europe and beyond
• Composers sought to differentiate themselves from the dominant German tradition by developing distinctive national idioms
  • Russian composers like Glinka, Mussorgsky, and Rimsky-Korsakov incorporated elements of Russian folk music and Orthodox chant into their works
  • Spanish composers like Albéniz, Granados, and Falla evoked the sounds of flamenco, guitar music, and Moorish influences
  • American composers like Gottschalk, MacDowell, and Dvořák (during his stay in the US) drew on African American spirituals, Native American melodies, and other folk sources
• The proliferation of national styles challenged the idea of a universal musical language and paved the way for the eclecticism and experimentation of 20th-century music
• Nationalist composers also influenced each other and created a sense of cross-cultural dialogue
  • Dvořák's Symphony No. 9 ("From the New World") was inspired by his encounters with African American and Native American music during his stay in the United States
  • Tchaikovsky's Spanish-themed works, such as the Capriccio Italien and the "Spanish Dance" from Swan Lake, reflect the popularity of Spanish music among Russian composers
• The nationalist movement in music thus contributed to a more diverse and interconnected musical landscape, even as it emphasized the uniqueness and autonomy of different cultural traditions

Folk Music Use in Romantic Compositions

Quotation and Adaptation of Folk Melodies

• Some composers extensively quoted or adapted specific folk melodies in their works
  • Brahms based the finales of his Symphony No. 1 and Piano Concerto No. 1 on the alphorn call from the Swiss folk song "Ranz des Vaches"
  • Dvořák quoted Bohemian folk tunes in his Slavonic Dances, String Quartet No. 12 ("American"), and other works
  • Vaughan Williams used English folk songs as the basis for his Fantasy on a Theme by Thomas Tallis and his English Folk Song Suite
• Other composers evoked a more general folk-like style through their use of rhythm, harmony, and orchestration, without quoting specific melodies
  • Grieg's Lyric Pieces for piano feature folk-like melodies, drone basses, and modal harmonies that evoke the sound of Norwegian folk music
  • Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 4 features a folk-like melody in the finale that is based on a descending scale pattern characteristic of Russian folk music
• The degree of quotation and adaptation varied depending on the composer's artistic goals and the cultural context of the work
  • Some composers sought to preserve the authenticity of folk melodies by quoting them accurately and setting them in a simple, straightforward manner
  • Others used folk melodies as a starting point for more elaborate compositional development, transforming them through techniques like variation, counterpoint, and thematic metamorphosis

Influence of Composers' Nationalities and Cultural Backgrounds

• The use of folk music elements varied depending on the composer's nationality and cultural background
• Composers from countries with a strong folk music tradition, such as Russia, Bohemia, and Norway, tended to make more extensive use of folk elements in their works
  • Mussorgsky's opera Boris Godunov features a number of Russian folk songs and choral dances that reflect the composer's deep engagement with Russian folk culture
  • Dvořák's Slavonic Dances and Smetana's Má vlast are filled with references to Bohemian folk music, reflecting the composers' desire to create a distinctly Czech national style
• Composers from countries with a less developed folk music tradition, such as France and Italy, tended to use folk elements more selectively or to evoke a more generalized sense of folklike simplicity
  • Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique features a pastoral folk-like melody in the third movement, but the work as a whole is more indebted to literary and autobiographical sources than to French folk music
  • Verdi's operas often feature simple, folklike melodies and choruses that reflect the composer's populist sensibilities, but they rarely quote specific Italian folk songs
• Some composers were influenced by the folk music of countries other than their own, reflecting the cosmopolitan nature of Romantic musical culture
  • Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsodies and Brahms's Hungarian Dances were inspired by the composers' encounters with Hungarian folk music, even though neither composer was Hungarian himself
  • Debussy's Estampes and Ravel's Rapsodie Espagnole reflect the French fascination with Spanish folk music and culture during the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Use of Folk Music in Different Genres and Forms

• The use of folk music elements varied depending on the genre and form of the composition
• In large-scale symphonic works, composers often used folk elements as a means of creating a narrative or programmatic dimension
  • Mahler's Symphony No. 1 features a funeral march based on the children's song "Frère Jacques" that evokes a sense of ironic detachment and alienation
  • Strauss's tone poem Don Quixote features a Spanish-style melody that represents the title character's love interest, Dulcinea
• In more intimate genres like solo piano pieces or songs, composers often used folk elements as a means of evoking a particular mood or atmosphere
  • Grieg's Lyric Pieces for piano often feature folk-like melodies and harmonies that evoke the simplicity and nostalgia of Norwegian folk culture
  • Tchaikovsky's Six Romances, Op. 38 feature a number of Russian folk songs that evoke the melancholy and longing of the Russian soul
• In chamber music, composers sometimes used folk elements as a means of creating a sense of dialogue or interaction between different instruments or voices
  • Dvořák's Dumky Trio features a number of folk-like melodies that are passed back and forth between the piano, violin, and cello, creating a sense of camaraderie and shared cultural identity
  • Smetana's String Quartet No. 1 ("From My Life") features a number of Bohemian folk dances that evoke the composer's memories of his childhood and his nationalist aspirations

Evolution of Folk Music Use over the Romantic Era

• The use of folk music elements evolved over the course of the Romantic era, reflecting changing attitudes toward nationalism, exoticism, and the role of music in society
• Early Romantic composers like Schubert and Weber used folk elements as a means of evoking a sense of natural simplicity or rural nostalgia, often in contrast to the artificiality and complexity of urban life
  • Schubert's song cycle Die schöne Müllerin features a number of folklike melodies and nature imagery that evoke the innocence and purity of the protagonist's love for the miller's daughter
  • Weber's opera Der Freischütz features a number of German folk songs and hunting calls that evoke the mystery and danger of the German forest
• Later Romantic composers often took a more abstract or psychological approach to folk music, using it as a means of exploring the inner workings of the human mind or the complexities of modern life
  • Mahler's use of folk music often has an ironic or distanced quality, reflecting the composer's ambivalent relationship to his Jewish and Bohemian heritage
  • Strauss's use of folk music often has a satirical or parodic edge, reflecting the composer's cynical view of human nature and the decline of traditional values
• The late Romantic era also saw a growing interest in the folk music of non-Western cultures, reflecting the influence of colonialism, orientalism, and the rise of ethnomusicology
  • Debussy's use of gamelan music in his piano piece Pagodes reflects the composer's fascination with the music of Java and Bali
  • Puccini's use of Chinese and Japanese folk music in his operas Turandot and Madama Butterfly reflects the exoticist tastes of early 20th-century audiences
• The use of folk music in the late Romantic era thus reflects a growing sense of cultural pluralism and relativism, as well as a desire to break free from the constraints of Western tonality and form.