15.2 Scientific and philosophical developments

Darwin's theory of evolution shook Victorian society to its core. It challenged religious beliefs, sparked debates on human nature, and influenced literature. Authors like H.G. Wells and Thomas Hardy wove evolutionary themes into their works, exploring the implications of Darwin's ideas.

Utilitarianism, developed by Bentham and Mill, proposed judging actions by their consequences. This philosophy shaped social reforms, economic theories, and literature. Writers like Dickens and Eliot explored utilitarian ideas in their novels, while critics argued it reduced human experience to mere calculations.

Darwin's Influence on Victorian Thought

Evolution and Natural Selection

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• Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" (1859) introduced natural selection concept challenged traditional religious beliefs about creation and human origins
• Theory of evolution sparked debates about human nature, morality, and social progress influenced philosophical and literary discourse throughout Victorian era
• Social Darwinism emerged as controversial application of evolutionary theory to human societies justified imperialism and class hierarchies
• Concept of "survival of the fittest" permeated Victorian literature manifested as characters struggling against environment or innate traits (Tess in Hardy's "Tess of the d'Urbervilles")
• Darwin's theory contributed to rise of literary naturalism emphasized role of heredity and environment in shaping human behavior and fate
  • Naturalism in literature portrayed characters as products of their genetic inheritance and social conditions
  • Authors like Émile Zola and Theodore Dreiser embraced naturalistic approach in their novels

Evolutionary Themes in Literature

• Literary works incorporated evolutionary themes and explored implications of Darwin's ideas
  • H.G. Wells' "The Time Machine" depicted future human species diverging into separate races
  • Thomas Hardy's novels often portrayed characters struggling against their "inherited" natures
• Darwinian concepts influenced character development and plot structures
  • Characters often faced moral dilemmas related to their evolutionary instincts
  • Survival became a central theme, with protagonists adapting to changing environments
• Authors used evolutionary theory to critique social norms and institutions
  • George Eliot's "Middlemarch" explored how societal expectations hindered personal growth and adaptation
  • Samuel Butler's "The Way of All Flesh" satirized Victorian family life through a Darwinian lens

Rise of Utilitarianism

Utilitarian Philosophy and Its Proponents

• Utilitarianism developed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill proposed actions should be judged based on consequences and ability to promote greatest good for greatest number
• Mill's "On Liberty" (1859) expanded utilitarian thought to include individual rights and freedoms shaped debates on personal autonomy and social progress
• Utilitarian principle of "greatest happiness for greatest number" influenced social reform movements and legislative policies in Victorian England
  • Influenced Factory Acts improved working conditions for laborers
  • Shaped public health initiatives like sanitation reforms in cities
• Philosophy challenged traditional moral and religious frameworks promoted more secular approach to ethics and social policy
• Utilitarianism influenced economic theories contributed to development of classical economics and debates on wealth distribution and labor rights
  • Shaped ideas of free market capitalism and laissez-faire economics
  • Influenced discussions on progressive taxation and welfare policies

Utilitarianism in Literature and Criticism

• Utilitarian ideas shaped Victorian literature appeared in works exploring consequences of social policies and individual choices
  • Charles Dickens' "Hard Times" critiqued utilitarian approach to education and industrialization
  • George Eliot's "Middlemarch" examined utilitarian ethics in personal relationships and social reform
• Critics of utilitarianism such as Thomas Carlyle argued it reduced human experience to mere calculations of pleasure and pain ignored spiritual and moral dimensions
  • Carlyle's "Signs of the Times" criticized the mechanistic worldview associated with utilitarianism
  • Matthew Arnold's cultural criticism emphasized the importance of moral and aesthetic values beyond utility
• Utilitarian thought influenced literary criticism and aesthetic theory
  • Walter Pater's aesthetic philosophy in "The Renaissance" explored the idea of maximizing pleasure through art appreciation
  • Oscar Wilde's "The Picture of Dorian Gray" examined the consequences of pursuing pleasure as the highest good

Technology's Impact on Victorian Society

Industrial and Transportation Advancements

• Industrial Revolution accelerated during Victorian era transformed manufacturing processes and urban landscapes through innovations
  • Steam engine revolutionized factory production and transportation
  • Mass production techniques increased output and standardization of goods
• Expansion of railways revolutionized transportation altered perceptions of time and space facilitated growth of suburbs and tourism
  • Railway network grew from 98 miles in 1830 to over 20,000 miles by 1900
  • Enabled faster movement of goods and people across the country
• Mechanization of agriculture through inventions like steam-powered thresher altered rural economies and accelerated urbanization
  • Increased agricultural productivity led to surplus labor moving to cities
  • Changed traditional rural lifestyles and social structures

Communication and Cultural Innovations

• Advancements in communication technology dramatically changed speed and nature of information exchange
  • Telegraph enabled rapid long-distance communication (first transatlantic cable laid in 1866)
  • Telephone invention by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 revolutionized personal communication
• Development of photography and improvements in printing techniques transformed visual culture and information dissemination
  • Daguerreotype process popularized portrait photography
  • Rotary printing press increased speed and reduced cost of newspaper production
• Technological progress in medicine and public health led to improved living conditions and longer life expectancies
  • Advancements in anesthesia (chloroform first used in 1847) improved surgical procedures
  • Sanitation reforms (Public Health Act of 1848) reduced spread of diseases in urban areas
• Technological advancements became central theme in Victorian literature explored potential benefits and dangers of progress
  • Samuel Butler's "Erewhon" satirized society's relationship with technology
  • Edward Bulwer-Lytton's "The Coming Race" speculated on future technological advancements

Religion vs Science in Victorian England

Scientific Challenges to Religious Beliefs

• Victorian era witnessed increasing tension between traditional religious beliefs and new scientific discoveries led to crisis of faith for many individuals
• Publication of geological findings challenged biblical account of creation sparked debates about literal interpretation of scripture
  • Charles Lyell's "Principles of Geology" (1830-1833) proposed Earth was much older than biblical timeline
  • James Hutton's theory of uniformitarianism suggested gradual geological changes over long periods
• Higher criticism method of biblical analysis treated religious texts as historical documents challenged divine authorship of Bible
  • German scholars like Julius Wellhausen applied historical-critical methods to study of Old Testament
  • Essays and Reviews (1860) introduced higher criticism to wider English audience caused controversy
• Scientific naturalism championed by figures like T.H. Huxley promoted worldview based on empirical evidence and natural laws challenged supernatural explanations
  • Huxley coined term "agnosticism" to describe skeptical approach to religious claims
  • John Tyndall's Belfast Address (1874) argued for separation of science and religion

Religious Responses and Literary Reflections

• Oxford Movement within Anglican Church sought to revive traditional Catholic practices created divisions within established church
  • Led by John Henry Newman, Edward Pusey, and John Keble
  • Influenced religious literature and architecture (Gothic Revival)
• Concept of "muscular Christianity" emerged emphasizing physical fitness and moral character in response to perceived threats to traditional religious values
  • Promoted in works of Charles Kingsley and Thomas Hughes
  • Influenced development of organized sports in schools and universities
• Religious doubt and search for meaning in changing world became prominent themes in Victorian literature
  • Matthew Arnold's "Dover Beach" expressed loss of faith in face of scientific progress
  • Alfred Tennyson's "In Memoriam A.H.H." grappled with religious doubt and evolutionary theory
• Authors explored alternative spiritual and philosophical ideas in response to religious uncertainty
  • George Eliot's "Silas Marner" examined redemption through human relationships rather than traditional faith
  • Thomas Hardy's novels often portrayed characters struggling with loss of religious belief in rural settings