17.2 Foreign Policy Instruments

U.S. foreign policy relies on various instruments to achieve its goals. These include diplomacy, economic tools like foreign aid and sanctions, and military actions. Each tool serves different purposes, from negotiating conflicts to influencing other nations' behavior.

Foreign policy can be broadly focused, addressing global issues, or sharply focused on specific concerns. The balance of power between Congress and the executive branch shapes policy decisions, with each branch having distinct constitutional roles and responsibilities in foreign affairs.

Foreign Policy Instruments

Instruments of U.S. foreign policy

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• Diplomacy involves negotiations and discussions between nations conducted by the State Department, led by the Secretary of State, to resolve conflicts and promote cooperation through formal diplomatic relations, treaties (NATO), and international agreements (Paris Climate Accord)
  • Public diplomacy efforts aim to influence foreign publics and shape international opinion through cultural exchanges, educational programs, and media outreach
• Economic tools
  • Foreign aid provides financial assistance to other countries for various purposes, such as development (infrastructure projects), humanitarian relief (disaster response), or strategic interests (military aid), and can be used to influence the policies and actions of recipient countries
  • Trade policies set tariffs, quotas, and other regulations on imports and exports to protect domestic industries (steel tariffs), promote economic growth (free trade agreements), or exert pressure on other nations
  • Sanctions restrict or prohibit economic transactions with a country to punish or deter certain actions, and can include freezing assets, banning investments (Iran sanctions), or limiting trade (Cuba embargo)
  • Economic statecraft uses economic tools to achieve foreign policy goals, including trade agreements, foreign investment, and economic assistance
• Military actions involve the use of armed forces to protect national interests, defend allies, or intervene in conflicts, ranging from limited operations, such as airstrikes (Syria) or special forces missions (Osama bin Laden raid), to full-scale wars (Iraq War), and require authorization from Congress, although presidents have sometimes acted without explicit approval
  • Coercive diplomacy combines threats of force with negotiations to compel an adversary to change its behavior

Broad vs focused foreign policy

• Broadly focused foreign policy addresses a wide range of issues and regions, seeking to maintain global stability, promote democracy and human rights, and advance U.S. interests through multilateral cooperation, often involving long-term commitments and engagement with international organizations, but can be more difficult to sustain due to competing priorities and resource constraints
• Sharply focused foreign policy concentrates on specific issues, regions, or threats, prioritizing national security (counterterrorism), economic interests (trade deals), or ideological goals (anti-communism), and may involve unilateral actions or selective partnerships with like-minded countries (coalition of the willing), which can be more effective in achieving targeted objectives but may neglect broader global challenges (climate change)

Congressional-executive power balance in foreign policy

• Constitutional powers
  • The President is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces and has the power to make treaties and appoint ambassadors with the advice and consent of the Senate
  • Congress has the power to declare war, regulate foreign commerce, and appropriate funds for foreign policy initiatives
• War Powers Resolution (1973) requires the President to consult with and report to Congress when deploying U.S. forces into hostilities or imminent hostilities, limiting the President's ability to engage in military actions without congressional approval
• Treaty ratification and implementation involves the Senate ratifying treaties with a two-thirds majority, and Congress can pass legislation to implement or modify treaties, giving it influence over their interpretation and application
• Oversight and investigations allow congressional committees to hold hearings, conduct investigations, and subpoena witnesses to scrutinize foreign policy decisions and actions, putting pressure on the executive branch to justify or change its policies (Benghazi hearings)
• Funding and appropriations enable Congress to control the budget and use its power of the purse to shape foreign policy priorities by attaching conditions or restrictions to foreign aid, military spending, or other international programs (tying human rights to aid)

Foreign Policy Frameworks and Institutions

• Foreign policy doctrines are overarching principles or strategies that guide a country's approach to international relations, often associated with specific presidents or administrations
• Strategic interests shape foreign policy decisions by prioritizing long-term national objectives, such as maintaining global influence, ensuring economic prosperity, or safeguarding national security
• International organizations play a crucial role in facilitating cooperation among nations, addressing global challenges, and providing platforms for diplomatic engagement and conflict resolution