2.1 Archaeological Research Methods

Archaeological research methods are crucial for uncovering and understanding our past. From surveying and excavation to dating techniques, these methods help archaeologists piece together human history. They reveal hidden stories buried beneath our feet.

Careful documentation and context are key in archaeology. Researchers use various tools and techniques to record findings accurately. This meticulous approach ensures that valuable information about our ancestors and their ways of life isn't lost during excavation.

Archaeological Research Methods

Archaeological excavation techniques

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• Surveying and mapping employ various methods to locate and document archaeological sites
  • Aerial photography and satellite imagery provide overviews of the landscape to identify potential sites (earthworks, crop marks)
  • Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) uses electromagnetic waves to detect subsurface features (buried walls, foundations)
  • Magnetometry measures magnetic anomalies in the soil to identify archaeological features (hearths, kilns)
  • Resistivity surveys measure electrical resistance in the soil to detect buried features (ditches, pits)
• Excavation techniques involve the systematic removal of soil and sediments to uncover and document archaeological remains
  • Stratigraphic excavation removes layers of soil in reverse chronological order, carefully documenting each layer to understand site formation processes (archaeological site formation processes)
  • Arbitrary levels involve excavating in predetermined increments (10 cm levels) when natural strata are not visible, providing a controlled method for recovering artifacts
  • Feature excavation focuses on specific archaeological features (hearths, pits), allowing for detailed investigation of discrete contexts
  • Screening and sieving pass excavated soil through mesh screens to recover small artifacts (beads, seeds) that may be missed during excavation

Context and documentation in archaeology

• Context refers to the relationship between artifacts and their surroundings, crucial for understanding an artifact's function, age, and cultural significance
  • Provenience is the precise location of an artifact within the site (unit, level, feature)
  • Association is the relationship between artifacts found together, providing insights into past human activities (tool kits, ritual deposits)
• Field documentation methods ensure that the context and provenience of artifacts are accurately recorded
  • Photographs record the site, features, and artifacts in situ, providing visual documentation of the excavation process
  • Drawings and sketches include plan views (horizontal) and profiles (vertical) of excavation units and features, capturing spatial relationships and stratigraphy
  • Field notes are detailed written descriptions of the site, excavation process, and findings, serving as a primary record of the archaeological investigation
  • Artifact labeling and bagging assign unique identification numbers to artifacts and store them in labeled bags with provenience information, ensuring that the context is maintained throughout analysis and curation

Law of superposition for site interpretation

• The law of superposition states that in undisturbed stratigraphic sequences, older layers are found below younger layers
  • This principle helps establish the relative chronology of archaeological sites, with deeper layers generally representing earlier periods
• Interpreting stratigraphic sequences involves identifying natural and cultural layers and recognizing disturbances that may disrupt the sequence
  • Natural layers result from geological processes (soil formation, sediment deposition) and can provide environmental context for the site
  • Cultural layers are created by human activities (occupation surfaces, fill episodes) and contain artifacts and features
  • Disturbances such as intrusions (pits, burrows) and erosion can alter the original stratigraphic sequence and must be accounted for in site interpretation
• The Harris Matrix is a diagram that represents the stratigraphic relationships between archaeological contexts
  • It uses lines and boxes to show which layers are above, below, or contemporaneous with others
  • The Harris Matrix helps visualize the site's formation processes and chronology, aiding in the interpretation of complex stratigraphic sequences

Relative dating methods in archaeology

• Stratigraphy uses the law of superposition to establish relative chronology, with artifacts in lower layers being older than those in upper layers
  • It is the most basic and widely used relative dating method in archaeology
• Seriation arranges artifacts in chronological order based on changes in style or frequency over time
  • It assumes that certain artifact types or styles were more popular during specific periods (ceramic styles, projectile point types)
  • Frequency seriation relies on the relative abundance of artifact types, while contextual seriation considers the presence or absence of types in specific contexts
• Typology classifies artifacts based on shared physical characteristics (shape, size, decoration) and assumes that artifact types evolved over time
  • By studying the morphological changes in artifact types, archaeologists can establish relative chronologies (projectile point sequences)
  • Typologies are often regional and time-specific, requiring a good understanding of the local archaeological record
• Cross-dating uses artifacts or features with known dates to establish the age of associated contexts
  • Diagnostic artifacts such as coins, inscriptions, or imported goods from well-dated contexts can provide a terminus post quem (date after which) for the associated layer or feature
  • Radiocarbon dates from organic materials can also be used to cross-date associated contexts

Absolute dating techniques for artifacts

• Radiocarbon ($^{14}$C) dating measures the decay of radioactive carbon isotopes in organic materials
  • It is effective for dating materials up to ~50,000 years old (wood, charcoal, bone)
  • The method requires calibration to account for atmospheric $^{14}$C variability caused by factors such as solar activity and ocean circulation
• Potassium-argon (K-Ar) and argon-argon (Ar-Ar) dating measure the decay of potassium-40 to argon-40 in volcanic rocks
  • These methods are effective for dating materials older than ~100,000 years and are useful for dating volcanic ash layers associated with archaeological sites (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania)
• Thermoluminescence (TL) dating measures the accumulated radiation dose in crystalline materials (ceramics, burnt stone)
  • It is effective for dating materials up to ~500,000 years old
  • The method requires knowledge of the material's burial environment and radiation exposure to calculate the age
• Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating measures the accumulated radiation dose in sediments (quartz, feldspar)
  • It is effective for dating materials up to ~200,000 years old and is useful for dating the burial age of sediments associated with archaeological remains (dunes, alluvial deposits)
  • Like TL dating, OSL requires an understanding of the sediment's burial history and environmental conditions

Post-excavation analysis and conservation

• Archaeometry applies scientific techniques to analyze archaeological materials, providing insights into their composition, origin, and production methods
  • Chemical analysis can determine the elemental composition of artifacts, aiding in sourcing studies and understanding ancient technologies
  • Microscopic analysis examines the microstructure of materials, revealing details about manufacturing processes and use-wear patterns
• Artifact conservation involves stabilizing and preserving archaeological materials to prevent further degradation
  • Conservation treatments are tailored to specific material types (metals, ceramics, organic materials) and their condition
  • Proper storage and environmental control are essential for long-term preservation of artifacts
• Taphonomy studies the processes that affect organic remains after death, including decomposition, fossilization, and site formation processes
  • Understanding taphonomic processes helps archaeologists interpret faunal remains and human burials more accurately
• Cultural resource management integrates archaeological research with legal and ethical considerations for protecting and managing archaeological sites
  • It involves balancing the needs of development with the preservation of cultural heritage
  • CRM archaeologists often work on compliance projects related to federal and state regulations