2.2 Development of Scientific Archaeology in the 19th Century

Scientific archaeology emerged in the 19th century, revolutionizing how we study the past. Key figures like Thomsen, Boucher de Perthes, and Darwin introduced groundbreaking ideas that shaped the field.

This shift from antiquarianism to scientific inquiry brought new methods like stratigraphy and typology. It also reflected broader intellectual trends of the time, including the Enlightenment and evolutionary theory.

Key Figures and Events in the Development of Scientific Archaeology

Key figures in scientific archaeology

Top images from around the web for Key figures in scientific archaeology

• 

  File:Hw-darwin.jpg - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Boucher de Perthes, el arqueólogo aficionado que expuso la idea de un hombre antediluviano trece ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Category:Objects displayed at the Exposition Universelle (1867) - Wikimedia Commons View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Hw-darwin.jpg - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Boucher de Perthes, el arqueólogo aficionado que expuso la idea de un hombre antediluviano trece ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for Key figures in scientific archaeology

• 

  File:Hw-darwin.jpg - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Boucher de Perthes, el arqueólogo aficionado que expuso la idea de un hombre antediluviano trece ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Category:Objects displayed at the Exposition Universelle (1867) - Wikimedia Commons View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Hw-darwin.jpg - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Boucher de Perthes, el arqueólogo aficionado que expuso la idea de un hombre antediluviano trece ... View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• Christian Jürgensen Thomsen
  • Developed the Three-Age System categorizing human prehistory into the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age based on the primary materials used for tools and weapons in each period
  • Established the concept of relative dating, which allows archaeologists to determine the chronological order of past events or artifacts without knowing their absolute ages
• Jacques Boucher de Perthes
  • Discovered ancient stone tools (hand axes) in the Somme Valley, France, providing evidence for the existence of early humans in the region
  • Argued for the existence of prehistoric humans, challenging the prevailing view of a short human history based on biblical chronology
• Charles Lyell
  • Geologist who proposed the principles of uniformitarianism, which states that the same geological processes operating today have been at work throughout Earth's history, and gradualism, the idea that these processes operate slowly over long periods
  • His work influenced the understanding of the Earth's age and the antiquity of humans, providing a framework for the study of human prehistory
• Charles Darwin
  • Developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, which explains how species change over time through the inheritance of beneficial traits
  • His ideas contributed to the understanding of human origins and the importance of studying the past to comprehend the evolution of human societies and cultures
• John Lubbock
  • Coined the terms "Paleolithic" (Old Stone Age) and "Neolithic" (New Stone Age) to further refine the Stone Age period based on the advancement of stone tool technologies
  • Promoted the use of scientific methods in archaeology, such as stratigraphy and typology, to systematically study and interpret the material remains of past human activities

Principles and Methods of Scientific Archaeology

Principles of scientific archaeology

• Stratigraphy
  • The study of layered deposits (strata) and the principle that, in undisturbed contexts, older layers are found beneath younger layers
  • Used to establish relative chronologies of archaeological sites and understand the sequence of events or occupations
• Typology
  • The classification of artifacts based on their physical characteristics (shape, size, material) and attributes (decoration, function)
  • Helps in establishing chronologies, tracing cultural changes over time, and identifying regional variations or cultural interactions
• Cross-dating
  • The practice of dating artifacts or sites by comparing them with similar objects from other contexts with known dates, such as written records or well-dated sites
  • Enables the establishment of more accurate chronologies and the synchronization of cultural developments across different regions
• Systematic excavation
  • The careful and methodical excavation of archaeological sites, recording the precise context (location, depth, associated artifacts) and provenance (origin or source) of artifacts
  • Allows for a more comprehensive understanding of past human activities, behaviors, and site formation processes

Sociocultural and Intellectual Contexts

Context for archaeological science

• Enlightenment
  • An intellectual movement in 18th-century Europe that emphasized reason, empiricism (knowledge based on observation and experimentation), and scientific inquiry
  • Encouraged the systematic study of the natural world and human history, laying the foundation for the development of scientific archaeology
• Industrial Revolution
  • A period of rapid industrialization, technological advancements, and innovations in Europe and North America during the late 18th and 19th centuries
  • Facilitated the development of new archaeological methods (improved excavation tools, transportation) and increased interest in the origins of human societies and the progress of civilization
• Colonialism and imperialism
  • European expansion and the establishment of colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Americas during the 19th century
  • Exposed archaeologists to a wider range of ancient cultures and artifacts, fueling interest in understanding the diversity of human societies and their development over time
• Evolutionary theory
  • Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, published in "On the Origin of Species" (1859)
  • Challenged traditional views of human origins and antiquity based on religious beliefs, providing a scientific framework for understanding the biological and cultural evolution of humans over time

Significance of the Shift from Antiquarianism to Scientific Archaeology

Antiquarianism vs scientific archaeology

• From treasure hunting to systematic study
  • Antiquarians primarily focused on collecting artifacts for their aesthetic or monetary value, often with little regard for their context or cultural significance
  • Scientific archaeology emphasized the systematic recording and study of the context, provenance, and cultural significance of artifacts to understand past human societies and behaviors
• Development of chronological frameworks
  • Antiquarians lacked a clear understanding of the temporal relationships between artifacts and cultures, often leading to speculative or inaccurate interpretations
  • Scientific archaeology established relative and absolute dating methods (stratigraphy, typology, cross-dating, radiocarbon dating), allowing for the reconstruction of cultural sequences and the establishment of more accurate chronologies
• Interdisciplinary approach
  • Scientific archaeology incorporated knowledge and techniques from other disciplines, such as geology (stratigraphy, site formation processes), biology (faunal and floral remains), and anthropology (cultural evolution, social organization)
  • This holistic approach provided a more comprehensive understanding of past human societies, their environments, and their interactions
• Foundation for modern archaeology
  • The principles and methods developed during the emergence of scientific archaeology in the 19th century laid the groundwork for the discipline as we know it today
  • Subsequent generations of archaeologists have built upon and refined these foundations, leading to new discoveries, technologies (remote sensing, GIS), and insights into human history and cultural diversity