2.3 The Eastern Question and Ottoman decline

The Eastern Question loomed large as the Ottoman Empire declined, sparking European intervention. Great powers vied for influence, while Ottoman rulers attempted reforms to modernize their state. This struggle shaped the region's political landscape and set the stage for future conflicts.

International wars and treaties redrew borders, granting independence to former Ottoman territories. Meanwhile, financial woes led to European control over Ottoman finances. These developments weakened the empire's power and sovereignty, accelerating its eventual collapse.

Ottoman Reform and European Intervention

The Eastern Question and Reform Efforts

Top images from around the web for The Eastern Question and Reform Efforts

• 

  File:Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1912.jpg - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Eastern question - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Partition of the Ottoman Empire - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1912.jpg - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Eastern question - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

Top images from around the web for The Eastern Question and Reform Efforts

• 

  File:Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1912.jpg - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Eastern question - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Partition of the Ottoman Empire - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  File:Territorial changes of the Ottoman Empire 1912.jpg - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

• 

  Eastern question - Wikipedia View original

  Is this image relevant?

1 of 3

• Eastern Question referred to diplomatic and political problems posed by the decline of the Ottoman Empire
• European powers sought to maintain balance of power in the region while protecting their interests
• Tanzimat Reforms initiated by Ottoman sultans aimed to modernize and strengthen the empire
  • Included administrative, legal, and educational reforms
  • Introduced concepts of citizenship and equality before the law
  • Reorganized military and financial systems
• Reforms faced resistance from conservative elements within Ottoman society

International Conflicts and Agreements

• Crimean War (1853-1856) pitted Ottoman Empire and allies against Russian expansion
  • Resulted in Ottoman victory with support from Britain and France
  • Treaty of Paris (1856) guaranteed Ottoman territorial integrity
• Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) led to significant Ottoman territorial losses
  • Concluded with the Treaty of San Stefano, later revised by the Treaty of Berlin (1878)
• Treaty of Berlin (1878) redrew Balkan borders and limited Russian influence
  • Recognized independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro
  • Established autonomous principality of Bulgaria
  • Allowed Austria-Hungary to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina

Financial Challenges and Foreign Control

• Ottoman Empire faced mounting debt due to war expenses and economic mismanagement
• Ottoman Public Debt Administration established in 1881 to manage repayment of foreign loans
  • Gave European creditors control over significant portions of Ottoman revenue
  • Limited Ottoman financial sovereignty and economic decision-making
• European powers gained increased influence over Ottoman internal affairs through financial control

Opposition Movements and Crises

Rise of Reform-Minded Groups

• Young Ottomans emerged in the 1860s as an intellectual movement
  • Advocated for constitutional monarchy and modernization
  • Influenced by Western political ideas (constitutionalism, nationalism)
  • Key figures included Namık Kemal and İbrahim Şinasi
• Young Turks formed in the late 19th century as a broader reform movement
  • Sought to modernize Ottoman state and society
  • Advocated for restoration of 1876 constitution
  • Included diverse groups with varying ideologies (Ottomanism, Turkism, Westernization)

Political Transformations and Power Struggles

• Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) evolved from Young Turk movement
  • Gained power through 1908 Young Turk Revolution
  • Forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to restore constitution and parliament
  • Dominated Ottoman politics from 1908-1918
  • Implemented centralization policies and promoted Turkish nationalism
• Sultan Abdul Hamid II's reign (1876-1909) marked by autocratic rule and modernization efforts
  • Initially supported constitutional reforms but later suspended constitution
  • Expanded education system and modernized infrastructure
  • Faced growing opposition from reform movements and ethnic minorities

Conflicts and Territorial Losses

Major Wars and Their Consequences

• Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) resulted in significant Ottoman territorial losses
  • Russia supported Balkan nationalist movements against Ottoman rule
  • Ottoman forces suffered defeats on multiple fronts (Balkans, Caucasus)
  • Led to independence or autonomy for several Balkan states
  • Demonstrated Ottoman military weakness and vulnerability

Balkan Wars and Ottoman Decline

• First Balkan War (1912-1913) pitted Ottoman Empire against Balkan League (Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Bulgaria)
  • Ottoman forces quickly defeated, losing nearly all European territories
  • Albania gained independence as a result of the conflict
• Second Balkan War (1913) erupted over division of conquered territories
  • Bulgaria fought against former allies and Ottoman Empire
  • Ottoman Empire regained some territory in Eastern Thrace
• Balkan Wars significantly reduced Ottoman presence in Europe
  • Forced large-scale population movements and refugee crises
  • Intensified nationalist sentiments among remaining Ottoman subjects
  • Weakened Ottoman military and economic resources on eve of World War I