2.2 Evolution of policing in the United States

The evolution of policing in the United States reflects broader societal changes and challenges. From colonial night watches to modern departments, law enforcement has adapted to meet community needs and address systemic issues.

Key developments include the formation of organized police forces, shifts in policing philosophies, and ongoing efforts to professionalize the field. These changes have shaped how police interact with communities and respond to crime.

Early Policing Systems

Night Watch and Day Watch Systems

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• Night watch system emerged in colonial America as rudimentary form of law enforcement
• Volunteer citizens patrolled streets during nighttime hours to maintain order
• Responsibilities included detecting fires, reporting crimes, and apprehending suspects
• Day watch system complemented night watch, operating during daylight hours
• Both systems suffered from inefficiency and corruption
  • Volunteers often slept on duty or avoided dangerous situations
  • Wealthy individuals paid others to serve their shifts, leading to inconsistent enforcement

Slave Patrols and Their Impact

• Slave patrols originated in southern states during the 18th century
• Primary purpose involved capturing and returning runaway slaves to their owners
• Consisted of white men who monitored and controlled slave populations
• Duties expanded to include:
  • Searching slave quarters for weapons or stolen goods
  • Breaking up gatherings of slaves to prevent potential rebellions
  • Enforcing curfews and travel restrictions on slaves
• Slave patrols significantly influenced the development of modern policing practices
  • Introduced concepts of organized patrols and proactive crime prevention
  • Established precedent for racial profiling and discriminatory enforcement

Establishment of Modern Police Departments

Boston Police Department: America's First

• Founded in 1838 as the first organized, publicly-funded police department in the United States
• Modeled after London's Metropolitan Police, established by Sir Robert Peel in 1829
• Key features of Boston Police Department:
  • Full-time, paid officers with defined roles and responsibilities
  • Centralized command structure with clear chain of authority
  • Emphasis on crime prevention rather than solely reactive response
• Innovations introduced by Boston PD:
  • Implementation of foot patrols to increase visibility and deter crime
  • Establishment of precincts to divide city into manageable districts
  • Introduction of uniforms to enhance officer recognition and authority

New York City Police Department: Growth and Influence

• Established in 1845, following Boston's model but on a larger scale
• Rapid expansion to meet the needs of America's largest and fastest-growing city
• Key developments in NYPD's early years:
  • Creation of specialized units to address specific crime types (burglary, homicide)
  • Implementation of telegraph system for improved communication between precincts
  • Introduction of mounted police units for crowd control and pursuit
• NYPD's influence on other departments:
  • Served as a model for other large cities establishing police forces
  • Pioneered use of technology in law enforcement (fingerprinting, crime scene photography)
  • Developed training programs that were adopted by other departments nationwide

Eras of Policing

Political Era: Corruption and Patronage

• Spanned from 1840s to early 1900s
• Characterized by close ties between police departments and political machines
• Key features of the political era:
  • Police chiefs and officers appointed based on political connections rather than merit
  • Widespread corruption, including bribery and selective enforcement of laws
  • Police used as tools for political intimidation and vote manipulation
• Consequences of political influence:
  • Inconsistent law enforcement based on political alliances
  • Erosion of public trust in police institutions
  • Lack of professionalism and standardized training for officers

Reform Era: Professionalization and Centralization

• Emerged in response to corruption of political era, lasting from 1930s to 1970s
• Focused on transforming policing into a professional, bureaucratic institution
• Key reforms implemented during this era:
  • Adoption of civil service systems for hiring and promotion
  • Centralization of police departments under strong, autonomous leadership
  • Implementation of standardized training programs and educational requirements
• Technological advancements:
  • Introduction of patrol cars, reducing foot patrols and community interaction
  • Adoption of two-way radios for improved communication and faster response times
• Shift towards crime control model:
  • Emphasis on rapid response to calls for service
  • Focus on arrest statistics as measure of police effectiveness

Community Policing Era: Reconnecting with the Public

• Began in 1970s as response to perceived disconnect between police and communities
• Aims to foster collaboration between law enforcement and citizens
• Key principles of community policing:
  • Problem-solving approach to addressing root causes of crime
  • Increased foot patrols and community engagement initiatives
  • Decentralization of decision-making to allow officers more discretion
• Strategies implemented in community policing:
  • Neighborhood watch programs to involve citizens in crime prevention
  • Community meetings to gather input on local concerns and priorities
  • Youth outreach programs to build positive relationships with young people
• Challenges in implementation:
  • Resistance from officers accustomed to traditional policing methods
  • Difficulty in measuring effectiveness compared to arrest-based metrics
  • Balancing community engagement with reactive crime response

Professionalization: Ongoing Evolution of Police Standards

• Continuous process of improving police practices and standards
• Key aspects of police professionalization:
  • Enhanced educational requirements for officers (associate's or bachelor's degrees)
  • Development of specialized training programs (crisis intervention, cultural sensitivity)
  • Implementation of evidence-based policing strategies
• Technological advancements in modern policing:
  • Body-worn cameras to increase accountability and transparency
  • Predictive policing software to analyze crime patterns and allocate resources
  • Social media use for community engagement and information sharing
• Ongoing challenges in professionalization:
  • Addressing implicit bias and systemic racism in policing
  • Balancing militarization of police equipment with community trust
  • Adapting to evolving crime trends (cybercrime, terrorism) while maintaining traditional policing skills