2.2 Gender and labor in the 19th century

The 19th century saw a stark divide in gender roles and labor. Men were expected to be breadwinners, working outside the home, while women were confined to domestic duties. This split was reinforced by the "cult of domesticity" ideology.

Despite societal norms, many women, especially from poorer families, worked outside the home. They faced limited job options, lower wages, and poor conditions. Women's increasing presence in the workforce led to labor activism and gradual shifts in gender expectations.

Gendered Division of Labor in 19th-Century America

Distinct Gender Roles in Public and Private Spheres

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• In the 19th century, there was a clear division of labor based on gender, with men and women occupying distinct roles in both the public and private spheres
• The "cult of domesticity" or "separate spheres" ideology reinforced the notion that women's proper place was in the home, while men belonged in the public sphere
• This ideology was rooted in the belief that men and women had inherently different natures and capabilities, with women being seen as more nurturing and emotionally suited for domestic life

Men as Breadwinners, Women as Homemakers

• Men were expected to be the primary breadwinners, working outside the home in fields such as agriculture (farming), manufacturing (factories), and commerce (business)
• Women were primarily responsible for domestic duties, including:
  1. Household management (cleaning, cooking)
  2. Child-rearing (caring for and educating children)
  3. Caring for the sick and elderly (nursing family members)
• Despite these societal expectations, many women, particularly from lower-income families, worked outside the home in factories (textile mills), as domestic servants (maids), or in other low-wage occupations

Gender and Employment Opportunities

Gendered Access to Jobs and Wages

• Gender played a significant role in determining employment opportunities and wages in the 19th century
• Men typically had access to a wider range of occupations and higher-paying jobs compared to women
  • Examples: skilled trades (carpentry, blacksmithing), professions (law, medicine), management positions
• Women's wages were consistently lower than men's, even when performing similar work, due to the belief that women's labor was less valuable and that they were not the primary breadwinners

Limited Opportunities for Women

• Women's employment opportunities were often limited to "feminine" occupations, such as:
  1. Teaching (one-room schoolhouses)
  2. Nursing (hospitals, private care)
  3. Domestic service (maids, cooks)
• These occupations were considered extensions of women's traditional roles and were often low-paying and less prestigious than male-dominated fields
• The concept of "pin money" suggested that women's earnings were merely supplementary to men's wages, further justifying the gender wage gap

Women in the Workforce

Increasing Participation and Challenges

• Despite societal expectations and limitations, women played a significant role in the 19th-century workforce
• Women's participation in the labor force increased throughout the century, particularly in the textile and garment industries (cotton mills, clothing factories), where they made up a significant portion of the workforce
• Women faced numerous challenges in the workplace, including:
  1. Poor working conditions (long hours, dangerous machinery)
  2. Low wages (often half of men's wages for the same work)
  3. Sexual harassment (from male supervisors and co-workers)

Women's Labor Activism

• The "Lowell System" in Massachusetts textile mills initially provided a relatively safe and respectable work environment for young, single women, but conditions deteriorated as competition increased
• Women's labor activism emerged in response to these challenges, with organizations like the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association advocating for better working conditions and higher wages
  • Example: Sarah Bagley, a key figure in the Lowell labor movement
• Women also played crucial roles in the abolitionist and suffrage movements (anti-slavery, women's right to vote), which were closely linked to labor rights and gender equality

Labor Movements and Gender Roles

Complex Relationship with Gender Equality

• Labor movements in the 19th century had a complex relationship with gender roles and expectations
• Some labor activists, such as the Knights of Labor, supported equal pay for equal work and welcomed women into their ranks, challenging traditional gender norms
• However, many male-dominated unions viewed women as a threat to their jobs and wages, and actively excluded them from membership or relegated them to separate, less powerful "women's auxiliaries"

Gradual Impact on Gender Roles

• The American Federation of Labor (AFL), founded in 1886, initially excluded women and focused on organizing skilled, male workers
• Despite these obstacles, women played active roles in labor organizing and strikes, such as the 1909 "Uprising of the 20,000" in New York City's garment industry
• The labor movement's impact on gender roles was gradual and uneven, with progress towards gender equality in the workplace being slow and incremental throughout the 19th century
• The fight for women's rights in the workplace continued into the 20th century, with landmark events such as the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire (1911) and the passage of the 19th Amendment (1920) granting women the right to vote