2.2 Greek orders (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian)

Greek orders are the foundation of classical architecture, defining the visual language of ancient temples and public buildings. Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian styles each have unique characteristics, from sturdy simplicity to ornate elegance.

These orders evolved over centuries, influenced by earlier cultures and refined by Greek architects. Their impact extends far beyond ancient Greece, shaping Western architecture for millennia and continuing to inspire modern design.

Origins of Greek orders

• The Greek orders, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, are distinct architectural styles that originated in ancient Greece and had a profound impact on the development of Western architecture
• These orders evolved over time, with each style characterized by specific proportions, decorative elements, and symbolic meanings

Influence of earlier cultures

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• The Greek orders were influenced by architectural traditions from earlier civilizations, such as Egypt and Mesopotamia
• Egyptians employed stone columns with plant-inspired capitals, while Mesopotamians used mud-brick construction and decorative friezes
• Greeks adapted and refined these elements to create their own unique architectural language

Development in ancient Greece

• The Doric order, the earliest and simplest of the three, emerged in the 7th century BCE and was predominant in mainland Greece and southern Italy
• Ionic order developed in the 6th century BCE in the Greek cities of Ionia (western coast of modern-day Turkey) and was characterized by more slender proportions and decorative elements
• Corinthian order, the most ornate, appeared in the 5th century BCE and gained popularity during the Hellenistic period (323-31 BCE)

Characteristics of Doric order

• The Doric order is known for its sturdy, masculine appearance and its association with the Greek god Apollo
• It is characterized by simple, unadorned capitals and a frieze divided into triglyphs and metopes

Proportions and ratios

• Doric columns have a height-to-diameter ratio of about 6:1, giving them a solid, substantial appearance
• The spacing between columns (intercolumniation) is typically about 1.5 times the diameter of the column
• The overall proportions of Doric temples follow a strict system of ratios based on the diameter of the column

Fluted columns

• Doric columns feature 20 shallow flutes (vertical grooves) that run the length of the shaft
• These flutes create a play of light and shadow, adding visual interest to the column
• The flutes are separated by sharp arrises (edges) and terminate at the top and bottom of the shaft

Simple capital design

• Doric capitals consist of a simple, unadorned square abacus (top plate) and a rounded echinus (cushion-like element) below
• The transition from the echinus to the shaft is marked by a series of annulets (horizontal rings)
• The simplicity of the Doric capital emphasizes the order's sturdy, functional character

Entablature elements

• The Doric entablature consists of three main parts: the architrave (lowest horizontal beam), the frieze (middle section), and the cornice (uppermost projecting element)
• The frieze is divided into triglyphs (vertical blocks with three vertical grooves) and metopes (square spaces between triglyphs, often decorated with sculpture)
• The cornice features a series of projecting blocks called mutules, which are aligned with the triglyphs below

Use in Greek temples

• The Doric order was widely used in the construction of Greek temples, particularly those dedicated to male deities like Zeus and Ares
• Notable examples include the Parthenon (Athens), the Temple of Hephaestus (Athens), and the Temple of Poseidon (Paestum, Italy)
• The sturdy, masculine character of the Doric order was seen as appropriate for the temples of these powerful gods

Features of Ionic order

• The Ionic order is characterized by its more slender proportions, scroll-shaped volutes, and overall elegance
• It is associated with the Greek goddess Athena and was often used in temples dedicated to her

Slender column proportions

• Ionic columns have a height-to-diameter ratio of about 9:1, making them more slender and graceful than Doric columns
• The shafts of Ionic columns are also fluted, but with 24 flutes separated by flat arrises (edges)
• The more slender proportions of the Ionic order give it a lighter, more elegant appearance

Scroll-shaped volutes

• The most distinctive feature of the Ionic capital is the pair of scroll-shaped volutes on either side
• These volutes are believed to have been inspired by natural forms, such as ram's horns or seashells
• The volutes are connected by a horizontal band called the canalis, which is sometimes decorated with an egg-and-dart motif

Ornate entablature

• The Ionic entablature is more ornate than the Doric, with a continuous frieze that often features sculptural decoration
• The architrave is divided into three horizontal bands (fasciae), with each band slightly projecting over the one below
• The cornice features dentils (small, tooth-like blocks) and sometimes additional moldings or sculptural elements

Application in Greek architecture

• The Ionic order was widely used in the Greek cities of Ionia and the Aegean islands, as well as in Athens and other parts of mainland Greece
• Notable examples include the Erechtheion (Athens), the Temple of Athena Nike (Athens), and the Temple of Artemis (Ephesus, modern-day Turkey)
• The elegance and refinement of the Ionic order were seen as appropriate for temples dedicated to female deities like Athena and Artemis

Attributes of Corinthian order

• The Corinthian order is the most ornate of the three Greek orders, characterized by its elaborate column capitals and decorative entablature
• It is associated with the Greek god Asclepius and was often used in temples dedicated to him

Most ornate Greek order

• The Corinthian order is distinguished by its highly decorative column capitals, which feature intricately carved acanthus leaves and other floral motifs
• The proportions of Corinthian columns are similar to those of the Ionic order, with a height-to-diameter ratio of about 10:1
• The overall appearance of the Corinthian order is one of richness, elegance, and sophistication

Elaborate column capital

• The Corinthian capital is the most complex and ornate of the three Greek orders
• It consists of a bell-shaped core surrounded by two tiers of stylized acanthus leaves
• Above the leaves are small scrolls (helices) and a central motif, often a rosette or a fleuron

Acanthus leaf motifs

• The acanthus leaf is the most prominent decorative element in the Corinthian capital
• The leaves are arranged in two tiers, with the upper tier emerging from between the leaves of the lower tier
• The edges of the leaves are deeply cut and drilled, creating a sense of depth and shadow

Decorative entablature

• The Corinthian entablature is similar to the Ionic, with a three-fascia architrave and a continuous frieze
• The cornice is often more elaborate than in the Ionic order, with additional moldings and sculptural elements
• Dentils and modillions (scroll-shaped brackets) are common features of the Corinthian cornice

Adoption in Hellenistic period

• The Corinthian order gained popularity during the Hellenistic period (323-31 BCE), when Greek architecture became more ornate and expressive
• Notable examples from this period include the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates (Athens) and the Temple of Olympian Zeus (Athens)
• The Corinthian order's elaborate decoration and grandeur were well-suited to the tastes of the Hellenistic kings and their desire to express power and wealth through architecture

Comparison of Greek orders

• The three Greek orders, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, each have distinct characteristics that set them apart from one another
• These differences are most evident in the proportions of the columns, the design of the capitals, and the ornamentation of the entablature

Doric vs Ionic characteristics

• Doric columns are sturdy and masculine, with a height-to-diameter ratio of about 6:1, while Ionic columns are more slender and elegant, with a ratio of about 9:1
• Doric capitals are simple and unadorned, consisting of a square abacus and a rounded echinus, while Ionic capitals feature scroll-shaped volutes on either side
• The Doric entablature has a distinctive frieze divided into triglyphs and metopes, while the Ionic entablature has a continuous frieze and a more ornate cornice

Ionic vs Corinthian features

• Ionic and Corinthian columns have similar proportions, with height-to-diameter ratios of about 9:1 and 10:1, respectively
• The main difference between the two orders lies in the design of the capitals: Ionic capitals have scroll-shaped volutes, while Corinthian capitals feature elaborate acanthus leaf motifs
• The Corinthian entablature is generally more ornate than the Ionic, with additional moldings and sculptural elements in the cornice

Evolution of orders over time

• The Greek orders evolved over time, with each new style building upon and refining the elements of its predecessors
• The Doric order, the earliest and simplest, was predominant in the Archaic period (7th-6th centuries BCE) and remained popular throughout the Classical period (5th-4th centuries BCE)
• The Ionic order developed in the 6th century BCE and gained prominence during the Classical period, particularly in Athens and the Aegean islands
• The Corinthian order, the most ornate, appeared in the 5th century BCE but did not gain widespread popularity until the Hellenistic period (323-31 BCE)

Symbolism and meaning

• The Greek orders were not merely functional elements of architecture but also carried symbolic meanings and associations with Greek deities and cultural values
• The choice of a particular order for a building was often influenced by these symbolic considerations, as well as regional styles and the preferences of the patron

Association with Greek deities

• Each of the three Greek orders was associated with specific deities and their attributes
• The Doric order, with its sturdy, masculine appearance, was associated with male deities like Zeus, Ares, and Apollo
• The Ionic order, with its more slender proportions and elegant volutes, was associated with female deities like Athena and Artemis
• The Corinthian order, with its elaborate acanthus leaf motifs, was associated with Asclepius, the god of medicine and healing

Representation of regional styles

• The Greek orders also reflected regional styles and preferences, with certain orders being more popular in specific areas of the Greek world
• The Doric order was predominant in mainland Greece and southern Italy, where it was seen as a symbol of the strength and simplicity of the Doric people
• The Ionic order was more popular in the Greek cities of Ionia and the Aegean islands, where it was seen as a reflection of the region's refinement and cultural sophistication
• The Corinthian order, although developed in Athens, gained its greatest popularity in the Hellenistic period, when it was adopted by the wealthy kings of the eastern Mediterranean

Reflection of cultural values

• The Greek orders also embodied important cultural values and ideals of ancient Greek society
• The Doric order, with its simple, functional design, reflected the Greek ideal of austerity and the importance of the community over the individual
• The Ionic order, with its more ornate and elegant features, reflected the Greek appreciation for beauty, refinement, and the pursuit of knowledge
• The Corinthian order, with its elaborate decoration and grandeur, reflected the increasing wealth and power of the Greek world in the Hellenistic period, as well as the desire to express individual achievement and status

Legacy of Greek orders

• The Greek orders had a profound and lasting impact on the development of Western architecture, influencing building styles from ancient Rome to the modern era
• The orders were adopted and adapted by subsequent cultures, each adding their own unique interpretations and variations to the basic forms

Influence on Roman architecture

• The Romans were greatly influenced by Greek architecture and adopted the three orders into their own building traditions
• Roman architects modified the proportions and details of the orders to suit their own tastes and the requirements of their building materials (primarily concrete and brick)
• Notable examples of Roman architecture that incorporate the Greek orders include the Pantheon, the Colosseum, and the Temple of Portunus in Rome

Revival in Renaissance and Neoclassicism

• The Greek orders experienced a major revival during the Renaissance (14th-17th centuries), as architects rediscovered and studied the writings of the Roman architect Vitruvius
• Renaissance architects like Filippo Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti incorporated elements of the Greek orders into their designs, often combining them with other classical motifs
• The Greek orders also played a central role in the Neoclassical movement of the 18th and early 19th centuries, which sought to revive the forms and ideals of classical antiquity
• Notable examples of Neoclassical architecture that feature the Greek orders include the British Museum in London, the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C., and the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin

Enduring impact on Western architecture

• The Greek orders have had an enduring impact on Western architecture, serving as a foundation for countless styles and movements over the centuries
• The basic forms and proportions of the orders have been adapted and reinterpreted to suit a wide range of building types and materials, from grand public edifices to private homes
• Even in the modern era, the Greek orders continue to inspire architects and designers, who often incorporate elements of the orders into their work as a way of connecting with the timeless principles of classical architecture
• The Greek orders remain a powerful symbol of the enduring legacy of ancient Greek culture and its contributions to the development of Western art and architecture