2.5 Hittites

The Hittites were a powerful ancient civilization in Anatolia, rivaling Egypt and Babylon. They emerged around 1600 BCE, establishing an empire centered on Hattusa. Their Indo-European origins and migration to Anatolia set the stage for their rise to power.

The Hittite Empire reached its peak during the New Kingdom period, engaging in complex diplomacy and military campaigns. They were known for their iron-working skills, chariot warfare, and distinctive art and architecture. Despite their eventual decline, the Hittites left a lasting impact on the ancient Near East.

Origins of Hittites

• The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who established an empire centered on Hattusa in north-central Anatolia around 1600 BCE
• They were one of the major powers in the ancient Near East, rivaling the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Babylonians
• The origins of the Hittites can be traced back to their Indo-European roots and migration to Anatolia

Indo-European roots

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• The Hittites spoke an Indo-European language related to other ancient languages such as Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit
• They likely originated from the Pontic-Caspian steppe region before migrating westward into Anatolia
• Linguistic evidence suggests that the Hittites split from other Indo-European groups around 2000 BCE

Migration to Anatolia

• The Hittites migrated into Anatolia sometime in the late 3rd millennium BCE
• They settled in the central Anatolian plateau, a region with fertile soil and strategic trade routes
• The Hittites intermingled with the local Hattian population, adopting some of their cultural practices and religious beliefs

Early city-states

• Before the rise of the Hittite Old Kingdom, Anatolia was divided into several independent city-states
• These city-states were ruled by local kings and had their own distinct cultures and languages
• The Hittites gradually gained control over these city-states through conquest and diplomacy, setting the stage for the rise of their empire

Hittite Old Kingdom

• The Hittite Old Kingdom, also known as the Old Hittite Empire, was the first centralized Hittite state
• It emerged around 1650 BCE and lasted until about 1500 BCE
• During this period, the Hittites expanded their territory and engaged in conflicts with neighboring powers

Establishment of kingdom

• The Hittite Old Kingdom was founded by King Hattusili I, who established the capital at Hattusa
• Hattusili I consolidated power by conquering neighboring city-states and establishing a centralized administration
• He also initiated a policy of expansion, leading military campaigns against the Hurrians and Assyrians

Expansion of territory

• Under Hattusili I and his successors, the Hittites expanded their territory to include much of central Anatolia
• They conquered the city of Kanesh, an important trade center, and gained control over the Assyrian merchant colonies
• The Hittites also expanded southward into Syria, coming into conflict with the Hurrians and Amorites

Conflicts with neighbors

• The Hittite Old Kingdom was marked by frequent conflicts with neighboring powers
• The Hittites engaged in wars with the Hurrians, a people who inhabited the region of northern Mesopotamia
• They also clashed with the Assyrians, a rising power in northern Mesopotamia
• These conflicts helped shape the political landscape of the ancient Near East and set the stage for the rise of the Hittite New Kingdom

Hittite New Kingdom

• The Hittite New Kingdom, also known as the Hittite Empire, was the most powerful period of Hittite history
• It emerged around 1400 BCE and lasted until the collapse of the empire around 1200 BCE
• During this period, the Hittites reached the height of their power and engaged in complex diplomatic relations and military campaigns

Height of Hittite power

• Under kings such as Suppiluliuma I and Mursili II, the Hittite Empire reached its greatest extent
• The Hittites controlled a vast territory stretching from the Aegean Sea to the Euphrates River
• They established a system of vassal states and tributary kingdoms, cementing their dominance over the region

Diplomatic relations

• The Hittites engaged in complex diplomatic relations with other major powers of the ancient Near East
• They formed alliances with powers such as Babylon and Mitanni to counter the growing threat of Egypt
• The Hittites also exchanged diplomatic letters and gifts with foreign rulers, as evidenced by the Amarna letters

Military campaigns

• The Hittite New Kingdom was marked by numerous military campaigns against neighboring powers
• The Hittites fought a series of wars against the Egyptians, culminating in the famous Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE
• They also engaged in campaigns against the Assyrians, Hurrians, and other Anatolian states

Rivalry with Egyptians

• The Hittites and Egyptians were the two superpowers of the ancient Near East during the Late Bronze Age
• They engaged in a long-standing rivalry for control over the Levant and Syria
• The conflict between the Hittites and Egyptians reached its climax at the Battle of Kadesh, which ended in a stalemate
• After the battle, the two powers eventually signed a peace treaty, the first recorded in history

Hittite society

• Hittite society was hierarchical and stratified, with the king at the top of the social pyramid
• The Hittite state was a monarchy, with the king holding ultimate political and religious authority
• Hittite society was divided into several distinct classes, including the aristocracy, commoners, and slaves

Social hierarchy

• At the top of the Hittite social hierarchy was the king, who was considered a divine ruler
• Below the king were the members of the royal family and the nobility, who held important political and military positions
• The majority of the population consisted of commoners, including farmers, artisans, and merchants
• At the bottom of the social hierarchy were slaves, who were often prisoners of war or debtors

Role of kings

• Hittite kings were absolute monarchs who held supreme political and religious authority
• They were considered divine rulers and were responsible for maintaining order and justice in the kingdom
• Kings led military campaigns, conducted diplomatic relations, and oversaw the administration of the state
• They also played a central role in religious ceremonies and festivals

Aristocracy vs commoners

• Hittite society was divided into two main classes: the aristocracy and the commoners
• The aristocracy consisted of the royal family, nobility, and high-ranking officials
• They held important political and military positions and enjoyed privileges such as land ownership and tax exemptions
• Commoners made up the majority of the population and included farmers, artisans, and merchants
• They were subject to taxes and labor obligations and had limited social mobility

Women in Hittite society

• Women in Hittite society had more rights and freedoms compared to women in other ancient Near Eastern cultures
• Queens and royal women held important political and religious positions and could own property and conduct business
• Women from noble families could also serve as priestesses and participate in religious ceremonies
• However, most women were still subordinate to men and were expected to fulfill traditional gender roles as wives and mothers

Hittite economy

• The Hittite economy was based on agriculture, trade, and the extraction of resources through tribute and taxation
• Agriculture was the foundation of the Hittite economy, with the majority of the population engaged in farming
• The Hittites were also skilled in metallurgy and craftsmanship, producing high-quality goods for trade and tribute

Agriculture and trade

• Agriculture was the mainstay of the Hittite economy, with crops such as wheat, barley, and grapes being cultivated
• The Hittites developed advanced irrigation techniques to support agriculture in the arid Anatolian plateau
• Trade was also an important part of the Hittite economy, with merchants exchanging goods along the major trade routes of the ancient Near East
• The Hittites traded in commodities such as textiles, metals, and horses

Metallurgy and craftsmanship

• The Hittites were renowned for their skill in metallurgy, particularly in the production of iron
• They were among the first civilizations to develop iron smelting techniques, giving them a military and economic advantage
• Hittite craftsmen also produced high-quality pottery, jewelry, and other luxury goods
• These goods were traded with other civilizations and used as diplomatic gifts

Tribute and taxation

• The Hittite state extracted resources from its subjects and vassal states through a system of tribute and taxation
• Conquered territories were required to pay annual tribute in the form of goods, such as precious metals, livestock, and agricultural products
• The Hittite state also levied taxes on its own population, with the burden falling mainly on the commoners
• The resources obtained through tribute and taxation were used to support the military, administration, and royal household

Hittite religion

• Hittite religion was polytheistic, with a pantheon of gods and goddesses adapted from Hattian, Hurrian, and Mesopotamian traditions
• The Hittites believed in a cosmic order maintained by the proper worship of the gods and the performance of ritual practices
• Hittite religion was closely intertwined with the state, with the king playing a central role in religious ceremonies

Polytheistic pantheon

• The Hittite pantheon included a large number of gods and goddesses, many of whom were adapted from the Hattian and Hurrian traditions
• The chief gods of the Hittite pantheon were the Storm God Teshub and his consort Hebat
• Other important deities included the Sun Goddess of Arinna, the god of wisdom Ea, and the god of war Zababa
• The Hittites also worshipped a variety of local and regional deities

Influence of Mesopotamian gods

• Hittite religion was heavily influenced by the religious traditions of Mesopotamia
• Many Mesopotamian gods, such as Ishtar and Marduk, were incorporated into the Hittite pantheon
• The Hittites also adopted Mesopotamian myths and epic tales, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh

Ritual practices

• Ritual practices were an essential part of Hittite religion, with elaborate ceremonies and festivals held throughout the year
• These rituals included offerings, libations, and animal sacrifices to the gods
• The Hittite king played a central role in these rituals, acting as the chief intermediary between the gods and the people
• Divination and magic were also important aspects of Hittite religious practice

Temples and festivals

• Temples were the center of Hittite religious life, with each major deity having their own temple in the capital city of Hattusa
• These temples were staffed by a large number of priests and priestesses who performed daily rituals and offerings
• The Hittites also celebrated numerous religious festivals throughout the year, such as the AN.TAH.SUM festival in honor of the god Telipinu
• These festivals involved processions, offerings, and public celebrations, and served to reinforce the social and political order of the Hittite state

Hittite language and writing

• The Hittite language was an Indo-European language written in cuneiform script
• It was the official language of the Hittite state and was used for administrative, legal, and religious texts
• The decipherment of Hittite in the early 20th century provided important insights into the history and culture of the Hittites

Cuneiform script

• The Hittites adopted the cuneiform script from the Mesopotamians for writing their language
• Cuneiform is a system of writing that uses wedge-shaped impressions on clay tablets
• The Hittites adapted the cuneiform script to suit the needs of their language, adding new signs and syllabic values

Hittite language decipherment

• The Hittite language was deciphered in the early 20th century by the Czech scholar Bedřich Hrozný
• Hrozný's decipherment was based on the discovery of Hittite-Akkadian bilingual texts at the site of Hattusa
• The decipherment of Hittite opened up a new field of study and provided important insights into the history and culture of the Hittites

Multilingualism in empire

• The Hittite Empire was a multilingual state, with several languages being used in addition to Hittite
• Akkadian, the lingua franca of the ancient Near East, was used for diplomatic correspondence and international trade
• Other languages spoken in the Hittite Empire included Luwian, Palaic, and Hurrian
• The Hittite scribes were trained in multiple languages and often produced bilingual and trilingual texts

Hittite art and architecture

• Hittite art and architecture were characterized by a blend of Anatolian, Mesopotamian, and Hurrian influences
• The Hittites were skilled in the production of monumental stone sculptures, relief carvings, and seals
• Hittite palaces and temples were impressive structures that served as important centers of political and religious life

Monumental stone sculptures

• The Hittites produced a large number of monumental stone sculptures, often depicting gods, kings, and mythical creatures
• These sculptures were carved from local stone and were used to decorate temples, palaces, and city gates
• Notable examples include the sphinx gate at Alaca Höyük and the lion gate at Hattusa

Relief carvings and seals

• The Hittites were also skilled in the production of relief carvings and seals
• Relief carvings were used to decorate the walls of temples and palaces, and often depicted religious and military scenes
• Seals were used for administrative and legal purposes, and often featured intricate designs and mythological scenes

Palace and temple architecture

• Hittite palaces and temples were impressive structures that served as important centers of political and religious life
• The palace at Hattusa, known as the "Great Temple," was a massive complex that covered over 32,000 square meters
• Hittite temples were typically built on high platforms and featured a central courtyard surrounded by rooms for offerings and rituals
• The Hittites also developed a unique architectural feature known as the "Hittite arch," a pointed arch used in gates and doorways

Hittite technology

• The Hittites were known for their advanced technology, particularly in the areas of metallurgy, warfare, and engineering
• They were among the first civilizations to develop iron smelting techniques, giving them a military and economic advantage
• The Hittites were also skilled in the production of chariots and other military technologies

Chariots and warfare

• The Hittites were one of the first civilizations to develop the chariot as a weapon of war
• Hittite chariots were lighter and more maneuverable than those of other civilizations, giving them an advantage on the battlefield
• The Hittites also developed advanced tactics for using chariots in battle, such as the "cantabrian circle" formation

Iron production

• The Hittites were among the first civilizations to develop iron smelting techniques
• They were able to produce high-quality iron weapons and tools, giving them a military and economic advantage over other civilizations
• The Hittites jealously guarded the secrets of iron production, and the technology spread slowly to other parts of the ancient Near East

Engineering achievements

• The Hittites were skilled engineers and builders, and constructed impressive fortifications, bridges, and water systems
• They developed advanced techniques for stone cutting and masonry, as evidenced by the impressive walls and gates of Hattusa
• The Hittites also constructed a network of roads and bridges to facilitate trade and communication throughout their empire

Decline of Hittite Empire

• The Hittite Empire began to decline in the late 13th century BCE due to a combination of internal and external factors
• The empire was weakened by a series of invasions and internal conflicts, leading to its collapse and fragmentation
• Despite its decline, the Hittite Empire left a lasting legacy on the cultures and civilizations of the ancient Near East

Invasions and instability

• The Hittite Empire faced a series of invasions from neighboring powers in the late 13th century BCE
• The Sea Peoples, a group of maritime raiders from the Aegean, attacked Hittite cities and disrupted trade routes
• The Kaska, a nomadic people from the Pontic Mountains, also launched raids into Hittite territory
• These invasions, combined with internal instability and a weakened central government, contributed to the decline of the Hittite Empire

Collapse and fragmentation

• The Hittite Empire collapsed around 1200 BCE, with the capital city of Hattusa being destroyed and abandoned
• The empire fragmented into several smaller states, known as the Neo-Hittite kingdoms
• These kingdoms, located in southeastern Anatolia and northern Syria, continued some aspects of Hittite culture and language
• However, they were eventually conquered by the Assyrians and other neighboring powers

Legacy of Hittite culture

• Despite its collapse, the Hittite Empire left a significant legacy on the cultures and civilizations of the ancient Near East
• Hittite art, architecture, and technology influenced later Anatolian and Syrian cultures
• The Hittite language and writing system provided important insights into the Indo-European language family
• Hittite religious and mythological traditions also had a lasting impact on later cultures, such as the Greeks and Romans
• The rediscovery and study of Hittite civilization in the 19th and 20th centuries has greatly enriched our understanding of the ancient Near East